Fatty acid composition of serum cholesterol esters as a reflector of low-saturated-fat, low-cholesterol diet in young children: the STRIP project. The Special Turku coronary Risk factor Intervention Project

STRIP (the Special Turku coronary Risk factor Intervention Project) is an ongoing intervention trial which aims at a permanent reduction in the intake of saturated fat and cholesterol starting in childhood. A total of 75 intervention and 63 control children was studied consecutively at the ages of 7 and 13 mo, and 2, 3 and 5 y to evaluate the influence of such intervention on serum cholesterol ester (CE) fatty acid composition, a widely used biomarker of fatty acid intake. Analysis of 4-d food records showed that total intake of fat and of saturated fat increased with age in both groups of children but was constantly lower in intervention than in control children, e.g. at the age of 5 y the mean intakes of total fat and of saturated fatty acids were 31.1 E% and 33.9 E% and 12.1 E% and 14.6 E% in intervention and control children, respectively (p = 0.009 and 0.0001, respectively). Serum CE fatty acid compositions did not differ between the 2 groups at any age; the mean proportion of CE linoleic acid was 52.4% and 52.0% in 5-y-old intervention and control children, respectively. Correlation analysis showed, however, that the percentage of linoleic acid and of polyunsaturated fatty acids in CE reflected well the respective dietary intakes (r = 0.36; p = 0.0001 for both coefficients). In conclusion, CE fatty acid composition did not differ between the intervention and control groups, whereas CE linoleic and total polyunsaturated fatty acids reflected well the differences in their intakes at the individual level.     

Serum cholesterol ester fatty acids in 7- and 13-month-old children in a prospective randomized trial of a low-saturated fat, low-cholesterol diet: the STRIP baby project

To evaluate changes that occur in serum cholesterol ester fatty acid composition during the transition from typical infant feeding to a more adult type of nutrition, this study compared the effects on serum cholesterol ester fatty acids of breast milk or formula at the age of 7 mo with effects caused by 6-mo dietary intervention in 137 children. The intervention [Special Turku coronary Risk factor Intervention Project for children (STRIP baby project)] aimed at a reduction of saturated fat intake to 10% of energy after the age of 1 y without purposefully influencing total fat intake. Nutrient intakes were calculated from 3-d food records. At the age of 7 mo, i.e. before dietary education began, milk type markedly influenced dietary and serum cholesterol ester fatty acid composition (mean serum cholesterol ester 16:0 in breastfed vs formula-fed infants, 13.7% vs 12.0%, respectively, p < 0.001; serum cholesterol ester 18:2n-6 50.6% vs 57.6%, p < 0.001). At the age of 13 mo the calculated fat intake of the intervention and control children differed markedly but serum cholesterol ester fatty acid compositions in all children resembled closely those measured in 7-mo-old breastfed infants, e.g. at the age of 13 mo the relative proportions of 18:2n-6 were 49.9% and 51.1% in previously formula-fed intervention and control children, respectively, and 50.3% and 50.1% in previously breastfed intervention and control children, respectively. In conclusion, serum cholesterol ester fatty acid composition reflected differences in dietary fat quality (breast milk or formula) at the age of 7 mo, whereas dietary intervention as applied in the STRIP baby project had only a minimal effect.     

Fatty acid content of plasma lipid fractions, blood lipids, and apolipoproteins in children fed milk products containing different quantity and quality of fat

BACKGROUND: Differences in fatty acid content of plasma lipid fractions and serum lipid concentrations were investigated among young children fed different milk diets composed to achieve a recommended saturated fat intake. METHODS: Thirty-eight healthy children were randomly assigned to one of four feeding groups at 12 months: 1) low-fat milk (1.0 g/dL cow's milk fat); 2) standard-fat milk (3.5 g/dL cow's milk fat); 3) partially vegetable fat milk (3.5 gtat/dL fat; 50% vegetable fat: rapeseed oil); and 4) full vegetable-fat milk (3.5 gtat/dL fat; 100% vegetable fat: palm, coconut, and soy oil). Plasma fatty acids, blood lipids, and apolipoproteins were analyzed at 15 months, and dietary intakes at 12, 15, and 18 months. RESULTS: There were significantly lower percentage contributions of saturated fatty acids in plasma triglycerides in children fed low-fat milk or milk with 50% or 100% vegetable fat than in children fed standard-fat milk. Plasma polyunsaturated fatty acid levels were significantly higher in children fed milks with vegetable fat than in children fed standard-fat milk. Plasma saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids in triglycerides most closely reflected dietary intake. Blood lipid concentrations were lower in children fed milk with 50% vegetable fat. CONCLUSIONS: Children fed milk with 50% or 100% vegetable fat, together with high vegetable-fat and low milk-fat dairy products have lower percentages of plasma saturated fatty acids and higher percentages of polyunsaturated fatty acids than children fed standard- or low-fat milk and dairy products.     

Low-saturated fat, low-cholesterol diet in 3-year-old children: effect on intake and composition of trans fatty acids and other fatty acids in serum phospholipid fraction-The STRIP study. Special Turku coronary Risk factor Intervention Project for children

OBJECTIVE: We evaluated whether replacing a proportion of saturated fat with vegetable oils in the diet of young children increases trans fatty acid intake. STUDY DESIGN: Dietary counseling aimed to reach a dietary fat ratio of unsaturated to saturated fat of 2:1 within a total fat intake of 30% to 35% of energy (E%). Four-day food records of 813 3-year-old children were analyzed, and serum phospholipid fatty acid compositions of 25 randomly selected intervention children and 17 control children were analyzed. RESULTS: trans fatty acid intake of the intervention and control children was small (0.8 E% and 0.6 E%, respectively; P <.001). The relative content of serum phospholipid trans 18:1 was closely similar in intervention and control children (1.0% and 0.9% of all fatty acids, respectively). Trans fatty acid intake and serum trans 18:1 correlated poorly with children's serum cholesterol and HDL cholesterol concentrations and inversely with serum phospholipid arachidonic to linoleic acid ratio (r = -0.373). CONCLUSIONS: Trans fatty acid intake of children in Finland is minimal. Dietary intervention replacing saturated with unsaturated fatty acids is safe because it does not increase trans fatty acid intake or the relative content of trans fatty acids in the serum phospholipid fraction.     

MATERNAL DIET AND FATTY ACID PATTERN OF BREAST MILK

ABSTRACT. The effect of habitual maternal diet on the fatty acid composition of breast milk was evaluated by conducting a dietary survey of lactating mothers and by analyzing their breast milk samples. The mean energy intake of the mothers was 9.8 MJ during the first survey week (20 mothers, 6-8 weeks post partum) and 8.6 MJ during the second survey week (13 mothers, 17-22 weeks post partum). Protein, fat and carbohydrate intake comprised 16%, 39% and 45% of the total energy intake, respectively. The breast milk samples contained 3.8% fat. Half of the fatty acids of the diets and breast milk were saturated (S), and one third were monoenoic. Polyunsaturated (P) fatty acids comprised 15% in the diets and 13% in the breast milk. The average P/S ratio was 0.3 both in the diets and breast milk samples. Carbohydrate intake correlated negatively ( p <0.05) with arachidic acid of breast milk, and both protein and fat intakes correlated positively ( p <0.05) with palmitic acid of breast milk. The maternal diet had no effect on the total fat content of breast milk. A positive correlation was found between the saturated ( p <0.05) and polyunsaturated ( p <0.01) fatty adds of maternal diet and breast milk. As to the single fatty acids, the only significant correlation was found with linoleic acid ( p <0.01). However, the variation of linoleic acid intake explained only about 27% of the variation occurring in the breast milk.     

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human milk and brain growth during early infancy

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are essential for growth and development, and their crucial role in the development of the central nervous system and in retinal function has been the subject of many studies. As the balance between n-6 and n-3 fatty acids has to be optimal, their concentrations in the milk given to infants who are exclusively breastfed is of major importance. In this study, the composition of fatty acids in mothers' milk and the growth rate of the infant brain were analysed. Nineteen mother-term infant pairs from Stockholm, Sweden, were studied from birth to 1 mo and 3 mo of age, during which time the infants were breastfed exclusively. The dietary intake of the mothers was calculated and found to concur with the recommended daily dietary allowances of Swedish lactating women as regards energy, protein, fat and carbohydrates. The amounts of linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid in the diet were similar to those reported for European and North American women. The ratio between arachidonic acid (AA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in the milk from Swedish mothers is approximately the same as in the brain of infants, and was found to be positively correlated with the rate of gain of the occipito-frontal head circumference and of the calculated brain weight at 1 mo (p < 0.01) and 3 mo (p < 0.01) of age, respectively. However, further studies are needed to establish the exact requirements of AA and DHA for optimal growth and development during early infancy in exclusively breastfed infants.     

Erythrocyte membrane omega-3 fatty acid levels and omega-3 fatty acid intake are not associated with conversion to type 1 diabetes in children with islet autoimmunity: the Diabetes Autoimmunity Study in the Young (DAISY)

Miller MR, Yin X, Seifert J, Clare‐Salzler M, Eisenbarth GS, Rewers M, Norris JM. Erythrocyte membrane omega‐3 fatty acid levels and omega‐3 fatty acid intake are not associated with conversion to type 1 diabetes in children with islet autoimmunity: The Diabetes Autoimmunity Study in the Young (DAISY). Aim: We investigated whether omega‐3 fatty acid intake and erythrocyte membrane omega‐3 fatty acid levels are associated with conversion to type 1 diabetes in children with islet autoimmunity (IA). Methods: The Diabetes Autoimmunity Study in the Young is following children at increased genetic risk for type 1 diabetes for the development of persistent IA, as defined as being positive for glutamic acid decarboxylase 65, i, or insulin autoantibodies on two consecutive visits, and then for the development of type 1 diabetes, as diagnosed by a physician. One hundred and sixty‐seven children with persistent IA were followed for a mean of 4.8 yr, and 45 of these developed type 1 diabetes at a mean age of 8.7 yr. Erythrocyte membrane fatty acids (as a percent of total lipid) and dietary fatty acid intake (estimated via food frequency questionnaire) were analyzed as time‐varying covariates in proportional hazards survival analysis, with follow‐up time starting at detection of the first autoantibody. Results: Neither dietary intake of omega‐3 fatty acids nor omega‐6 fatty acids were associated with conversion to type 1 diabetes, adjusting for human leukocyte antigen (HLA)‐DR, family history of type 1 diabetes, age at first IA positivity, maternal age, maternal education, and maternal ethnicity. Adjusting for HLA‐DR, family history of type 1 diabetes and age at first IA positivity, omega‐3 and omega‐6 fatty acid levels of erythrocyte membranes were not associated with conversion to type 1 diabetes. Conclusions: In this observational study, omega‐3 fatty acid intake and status are not associated with conversion to type 1 diabetes in children with IA.     

Comparison of fatty acid composition of plasma lipid fractions in well-nourished Nigerian and German infants and toddlers

The dietary intake of essential fatty acids is reflected by the plasma lipid composition. Only scanty data is available on the pattern of plasma fatty acids in young children and the influence of different environments. We analyzed the fatty acid composition of plasma sterolesters, triglycerides, and phospholipids in well-nourished-appearing children from Benin City, Nigeria (n = 8; aged 14.1 +/- 7.2 months) and Düsseldorf, FRG (n = 17; aged 15.2 +/- 5.1 months). The Nigerian group tended to have bigger proportions of the essential omega-6-fatty acids, linoleic acid, and its metabolites, and by far higher values for long-chain omega-3-fatty acids, which are considered to be protective against atherogenesis. The saturated and nonessential monoenoic fatty acids tended to be lower in the Nigerian children, and the ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids was higher. We conclude that the quality of dietary fat in the German children was worse and may imply an increased risk for development of atherosclerosis.     

Relationships between essential fatty acid levels,pulmonary function and fat absorption in pre-adolescent cystic fibrosis children with good clinical scores

Twenty-one pre-adolescent cystic fibrosis (CF) children with good clinical scores had significant (P<0.001) deficiencies of arachidonic (mean 3.8% of total plasma fatty acids ± SD 1.4) and linoleic (18.1±6.3) acids compared with controls (6.0±1.0, and 27.6±3.9, respectively). Despite the presence of pulmonary involvement of varying severity in all the CF children, neither arachidonic nor linoleic acid levels correlated significantly with pulmonary function measured by spirometry. All children had adequate caloric and fat intakes, and the coefficient of fat absorption correlated with none of the deficient fatty acid levels. These findings suggest that deficiencies of arachidonic and linoleic acids are of minor importance in the early development of pulmonary involvement in CF, and that factors other than fat malabsorption and decreased dietary intake probably contribute to fatty acid deficiency.Abbreviations CF Cystic fibrosis - EFA Essential fatty acid - PUFA polyunsaturated fatty acid - FVC forced vital capacity - FEV₁ forced expiratory volume in 1 s - FEF₅₀, FEF₇₅ forced expiratory flows at 50% and 75% of the expired vital capacity - FEF_25–75 forced expiratory flow measured between 25% and 75% of the expired vital capacity     

Essential fats: how do they affect growth and development of infants and young children in developing countries? A literature review

Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, particularly docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are known to play an essential role in the development of the brain and retina. Intakes in pregnancy and early life affect growth and cognitive performance later in childhood. However, total fat intake, alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) and DHA intakes are often low among pregnant and lactating women, infants and young children in developing countries. As breast milk is one of the best sources of ALA and DHA, breastfed infants are less likely to be at risk of insufficient intakes than those not breastfed. Enhancing intake of ALA through plant food products (soy beans and oil, canola oil, and foods containing these products such as lipid-based nutrient supplements) has been shown to be feasible. However, because of the low conversion rates of ALA to DHA, it may be more efficient to increase DHA status through increasing fish consumption or DHA fortification, but these approaches may be more costly. In addition, breastfeeding up to 2 years and beyond is recommended to ensure an adequate essential fat intake in early life. Data from developing countries have shown that a higher omega-3 fatty acid intake or supplementation during pregnancy may result in small improvements in birthweight, length and gestational age based on two randomized controlled trials and one cross-sectional study. More rigorous randomized controlled trials are needed to confirm this effect. Limited data from developing countries suggest that ALA or DHA supplementation during lactation and in infants may be beneficial for growth and development of young children 6-24 months of age in these settings. These benefits are more pronounced in undernourished children. However, there is no evidence for improvements in growth following omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in children >2 years of age.     

Long-chain n-3 fatty acids in breast milk of Inuit women consuming traditional foods

The fatty acid composition of mature breast milk total lipids was analysed in milk from Inuit women living in a small Arctic community. Long-chain n-3 fatty acids were higher than in comparable samples from Vancouver residents. The data suggest that secretion of n-3 fatty acids in milk is influenced by the dietary intake of the lactating woman. The levels of these fatty acids in Inuit milk approximate those reported for the diet fat of adult Eskimo, and which have been associated with reduced plasma cholesterol levels and death from coronary heart disease.     

Swedish pre-school children eat too much junk food and sucrose

Aim: To analyze dietary intake in healthy 4‐year‐old children. Methods: Families from three Paediatric Health Care Centres in different socio‐economic areas in Göteborg completed 7‐day food records and questionnaires about socio‐economy. Results: One hundred thirty two/153 completed the study, 49% of parents were university educated. Eighteen percent of children were overweight/obese. Energy intake was high; 67% had sucrose intake exceeding Nordic Nutrition Recommendations (NNR) but 36% had n‐3 fatty acid intake <0.5 energy percent. Significant negative correlations were found between sucrose and fat and between BMI and fat intake. Junk food supplied 24% of energy. Ninety‐two percent had low vitamin D intake, 70% low iron and 21% low calcium intake. Gruel, which was consumed by 28%, had a positive impact on micronutrient intake. Child care and mother's origin seemed to influence dietary intake. Conclusion: In 4‐year olds from well‐educated urban families, 18% was overweight/obese. Total energy intake was above present NNR but lower than 20 years ago, when overweight was rare. Fat energy intake was negatively associated with BMI, and low n‐3 fatty acid intake was associated with higher body weight. In several aspects dietary intake was not optimal in the children.     

Fatty acid composition of the milk lipids of Fulani women and the serum phospholipids of their exclusively breast-fed infants

We previously reported that, relative to milk of women elsewhere in the world, the lipid fraction of milk of Fulani women in northern Nigeria contained relatively low proportions of alpha-linolenic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). This led us to question the essential fatty acid status of Fulani infants and the relation between the proportion of critical n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in the serum phospholipids of the mothers, their milk, and the serum phospholipids of their exclusively breast-fed infants. We were also interested in the effect de novo intermediate chain length-fatty acids (C10-C14) had on the proportions of critical and non-essential fatty acids in milk. Capillary gas-liquid chromatography was used to analyze the fatty acid content of the total milk lipids of 34 Fulani women, as well as the fatty acid content of serum phospholipids of the women and their breast-fed infants during the first 6 months of life. The proportions of critical n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in the milk of the Fulani women were adequate, but the proportions of these same fatty acids were low in their exclusively breast-fed infants. The serum phospholipids of the infants contained 18.8% linoleic acid, 0.13% alpha-linolenic acid, 12.8% arachidonic acid, and 3.40% DHA, whereas, the mean percentages of linoleic, alpha-linolenic, arachidonic and DHA in the serum phospholipids of the Fulani mothers' were 21.4, 0.20, 9.79, and 1.97, respectively. There was a strong positive correlation between fatty acid content of serum phospholipids of Fulani women and the fatty acid content of their milk lipids. As the proportion of C10-C14 fatty acids in the milk lipids increased, the proportions of critical n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in milk remained relatively constant; however, proportions of three non-essential fatty acids decreased dramatically. C10-C14 fatty acids do not appear to displace critical n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in milk.     

Energy supplements rich in linoleic acid improve body weight and essential fatty acid status of cystic fibrosis patients

BACKGROUND: Patients with cystic fibrosis who have steatorrhea frequently are underweight and have essential fatty acid (EFA) depletion, which is associated with a poor clinical course. It has been stated that poor EFA status is difficult to correct in patients with cystic fibrosis, and an impaired EFA metabolism with reduced synthesis of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids has been proposed. In this study, the effects of an oral energy supplement rich in linoleic acid were investigated in patients with cystic fibrosis who had a body weight below 95% of normal for height. METHODS: Thirty-six patients (16 girls) more than 4 years of age were randomized either to a control group (n = 20, age 13.3 +/- 3.8 years, mean +/- SD) receiving intensive dietary counseling only, or an intervention group (n = 16, age, 10.4 +/- 4.3 years) treated for 3 months with dietary counseling plus 628 +/- 254 mL (= kcal) per day of an energy supplement rich in fat (31% of energy) and linoleic acid (16% of energy). RESULTS: In contrast to the control group, the patients with supplemented diets achieved significant increases of energy intake (2189 +/- 731 kcal/day vs. 2733 +/- 762 kcal/day), weight for height (82.8% +/- 8.6% vs. 84.8% +/- 9.6% of normal), and body fat (5.1 +/- 1.7 kg vs. 5.8 +/- 2.2 kg) as well as the initially low values of plasma phospholipid linoleic acid (11.8% +/- 1.1% vs. 17.6% +/- 1.6% of total phospholipid fatty acids) and its main metabolite arachidonic acid (4.4% +/- 0.4% vs. 5.9% +/- 0.3%). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with cystic fibrosis with low body weight and poor EFA status benefit from EFA-rich energy supplements and can synthesize arachidonic acid from the precursor linoleic acid.     

Prolonged bottle feeding in a cohort of children: does it affect caloric intake and dietary composition?

Little is known about the consequences to children of bottle feeding prolonged beyond age 1 year on caloric intake and overall dietary composition. To obtain these data, 165 children, followed up from infancy, were assessed in these respects for a 24-hour period at age 3 1/2 years. Bottle-fed children (n = 14) consumed more milk than their weaned counterparts (p < 0.001), had a higher mean daily calcium intake (p < 0.05), received fewer calories from carbohydrates (p = 0.034), and received a greater percentage of calories from protein (p = 0.033). There were no significant differences between the groups in total caloric intake, total iron intake, total volume ofjuice, or calories from fat. Pediatricians questioned about the effects of continuing to offer children nutritive liquids from bottles as well as cups (versus offering cups alone) may inform parents that this feeding practice is associated with significantly greater milk consumption and daily calcium intake. However, this study could not find evidence that prolonged bottle feeding at age 3 1/2 years is associated with a significantly decreased total daily iron intake or an increased risk for factors associated with adiposity such as a greater daily calorie intake, a higher body mass index, or greater percentage of total calories derived from fat.     

Fatty acid balance studies in preterm infants fed formula milk containing long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCP) II

A milk formula (Prematil-LCP) containing long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCP) and with a fatty acid profile closely resembling breast milk has recently been introduced for preterm infants. A double-blind randomized controlled trial was performed comparing fatty acid absorption from Prematil-LCP (n = 10) and standard Prematil (n = 10). Formula-fed preterm infants underwent 3 d fat balances (once full enteral feeds were established) along with a parallel human milk fed group (n = 11). Plasma samples were taken on the last day. Median total fat excretion (absorption, %) was 2.34 g kg (82.0), 2.64 g kg (82.9) and 1.65 g kg (87.8) with Prematil, Prematil-LCP and human milk feeding, respectively. This reflected differences in the excretion and absorption of long-chain saturated fatty acids. All groups excreted detectable LCP. LCP disappearance was higher in infants fed human milk than in those fed Prematil-LCP, particularly for n -6 LCP (p <0:01). Nevertheless, excreted LCP equated to <30% dietary intake, with Prematil-LCP feeding. Plasma lipid fatty acid composition reflected differences in dietary LCP intake.     

Food sources and intake of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in low-income countries with emphasis on infants, young children (6-24 months), and pregnant and lactating women

With increasing interest in the potential effects of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in early life, there is a need for data on the dietary intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in low-income countries. This review compiles information on the content in breast milk and in foods that are important in the diets of low-income countries from the few studies available. We also estimate the availability of fat and fatty acids in 13 low-income and middle-income countries based on national food balance sheets from the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization Statistical Database (FOASTAT). Breast milk docosahexaenoic acid content is very low in populations living mainly on a plant-based diet, but higher in fish-eating countries. Per capita supply of fat and n-3 fatty acids increases markedly with increasing gross domestic product (GDP). In most of the 13 countries, 70-80% of the supply of PUFA comes from cereals and vegetable oils, some of which have very low α-linolenic acid (ALA) content. The total n-3 fatty acid supply is below or close to the lower end of the recommended intake range [0.4%E (percentage of energy supply)] for infants and young children, and below the minimum recommended level (0.5%E) for pregnant and lactating women in the nine countries with the lowest GDP. Fish is important as a source of long-chain n-3 fatty acids, but intake is low in many countries. The supply of n-3 fatty acids can be increased by using vegetable oils with higher ALA content (e.g. soybean or rapeseed oil) and by increasing fish production (e.g. through fish farming).     

Food consumption of infants and young children in France in 1997]

BACKGROUND: In 1981 and 1989, two French nationwide food consumption surveys reported the dietary intakes of infants and toddlers. In 1997, another survey was conducted. POPULATION AND METHODS: Six-hundred and sixty, 1 to 30-month-old infants and children were recruited. Food records were completed by their parents during a 3-day period. Energy, proteins, carbohydrates, total lipids, minerals, vitamins, linoleic acid contents were calculated. Energy contribution of various food groups and the pattern of the distribution of the different meals were indicated. RESULTS: Between 1989 and 1997, the contribution of milk-based infant formulas increased at 4, 5, 7 and 8-9 months. From the age of 5 months, approximately 75% of the children had a protein intake twice as high as the official recommendations. Mean iron intakes were higher than those calculated in 1989 at the age of 7, 8-9 and 10-12 months. The average daily intake of linoleic acid was lower than the recommended daily allowance from the age of 6 months. CONCLUSION: Trends in dietary intakes between 1989 and 1997 indicated that the nutritional needs of French infants and toddlers are better covered as recommended by scientific committees. More effective efforts are needed for improvement of their nutritional status particularly for iron and essential fatty acids. For example, weaning foods should be introduced later and toddler's formulas should be used more systematically and longer.     

Composition of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human milk and growth of young infants in rural areas of northern China

The main source of fat in the diet in rural areas of northern China is soybean oil, therefore the pattern of essential fatty acids in human milk may be assumed to differ from that in milk from women in Western countries and to be similar to that of vegans. The concentrations of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human milk and information on diet were analysed for 41 lactating women in rural areas of north China, and the growth of their infants was measured. The subjects were divided into two groups (group I, 1 mo postpartum; group II, 3 mo postpartum). The dietary intake of the mothers was high in carbohydrate and low in fat, protein and energy. The concentrations of linoleic acid (LA) and alpha-linolenic acid (LNA) were high. The ratio of LA to LNA, (21.6), was higher than has been reported from other countries. The concentration of docosa-hexaenoic acid (DHA) was low and the ratio of arachidonic acid (AA) to DHA was much higher (2.8) than recommended and similar to that found in vegans. The concentrations of AA and DHA in the milk correlated positively with the infants' weight gain at the third month (p<0.05) and of DHA with length gain at the first and third months (p<0.01). Since the concentration of AA and, particularly, DHA in the milk declined during lactation, DHA deficiency may appear after 3-4 mo of age in breastfed Chinese rural infants. Further studies of Chinese rural mother-infant pairs are necessary to prove whether supplementation with suitable sources of AA and DHA, such as fish oil, should be recommended as lactation is lengthened to ensure optimal infant growth and development.     

Dietary intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids and fish among US children 12–60 months of age

This study aimed to estimate intake of individual polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), identify major dietary sources of PUFAs and estimate the proportion of individuals consuming fish among US children 12–60 months of age, by age and race and ethnicity. The study employed a cross‐sectional design using US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data. Representative sample of US population based on selected counties. Subjects: 2496 US children aged 12–60 months. Mean daily intake of n‐6 PUFAs and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) varied by age, with children 12–24 months of age having lower average intakes (mg or g day^?1) than children 49–60 months of age and the lowest n6 : n3 ratio, upon adjustment for energy intake. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) intake was low (20 mg day^?1) compared to typical infant intake and did not change with age. Compared to non‐Hispanic white children, Mexican American children had higher DHA and arachidonic acid (AA) intake. In the previous 30 days, 53.7% of children ever consumed fish. Non‐Hispanic black children were more likely than non‐Hispanic white children to have consumed fish (64.0% vs. 53.0%). Results indicate low prevalence of fish intake and key n‐3 PUFAs, relative to n‐6 fatty acids, which suggests room for improvement in the diets of US children. More research is needed to determine how increasing dietary intakes of n‐3 PUFAs like DHA could benefit child health.