Error processing in high-functioning Autism Spectrum Disorders

Studies report error-processing abnormalities in high-functioning individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) that may be influenced by intelligence and autism severity. Error processing can be measured using the error-related negativity (ERN) and post-error positivity (Pe) components of the event-related potential (ERP), along with behavioral indices such as post-error reaction time (RT) slowing. We used a modified Flanker task to test the hypothesis that high-functioning individuals with ASD would show decreased amplitude ERN in 24 individuals with ASD and 21 age- and IQ-matched typically-developing control participants. Behaviorally, individuals with ASD committed more errors than controls, but groups did not significantly differ on RTs, although there was a trend-level difference in post-error slowing. For ERPs, ERN amplitude was significantly attenuated in individuals with ASD relative to controls; groups did not differ in Pe amplitude. Amplitude of the ERN was not significantly correlated with measures of intelligence, anxiety, behavioral inhibition, or general autism severity.     

Error-related negativity varies with the activation of gender stereotypes

The error-related negativity (ERN) was suggested to reflect the response-performance monitoring process. The purpose of this study is to investigate how the activation of gender stereotypes influences the ERN. Twenty-eight male participants were asked to complete a tool or kitchenware identification task. The prime stimulus is a picture of a male or female face and the target stimulus is either a kitchen utensil or a hand tool. The ERN amplitude on male-kitchenware trials is significantly larger than that on female-kitchenware trials, which reveals the low-level, automatic activation of gender stereotypes. The ERN that was elicited in this task has two sources—operation errors and the conflict between the gender stereotype activation and the non-prejudice beliefs. And the gender stereotype activation may be the key factor leading to this difference of ERN. In other words, the stereotype activation in this experimental paradigm may be indexed by the ERN.     

Error monitoring during reward and avoidance learning in high- and low-socialized individuals

The error-related negativity (ERN) is a response-locked brain potential generated when individuals make mistakes during simple decision-making tasks. In the present study, we examined ERN under conditions of reward and punishment, among participants who scored extremely low or high on the socialization scale of the California Psychological Inventory (CPI). Participants completed a forced-choice task, and were rewarded for correct responses in half the trials, and punished for incorrect responses in the remaining trials. A significant interaction between socialization (SO) and condition revealed that low-SO participants produced smaller ERNs during the punishment task than during the reward task, whereas high-SO participants produced similar ERNs in both conditions. Reaction time and electromyogram data essentially bolster the interpretation that the ERN effects reflect differences in error salience for high-SO and low-SO participants, and are consistent with the avoidance-learning deficits seen in psychopathy.     

On the ERN and the significance of errors

The error-related negativity (ERN) is an event-related brain potential observed when subjects commit errors. To examine whether the ERN is sensitive to the value of errors, the motivational significance of errors was manipulated in two experiments. In Experiment 1, low and high monetary value errors were compared to evaluate the effect of trial value on the ERN. In Experiment 2, subjects performed a flanker task both while their performance was being evaluated and during a control condition. Consistent with the notion that the error-detection system is sensitive to the significance of errors, the ERN was significantly larger on high-value trials in Experiment 1 and during evaluation in Experiment 2. There were no corresponding effects on the correct response negativity, and no behavioral differences between conditions were evident in either experiment. These results are discussed in terms of the functional role of the ERN in response monitoring.     

To err is autonomic: error-related brain potentials, ANS activity, and post-error compensatory behavior

A two-component event-related brain potential consisting of an error-related negativity (ERN/Ne) and positivity (Pe) has been associated with response monitoring and error detection. Both the ERN and Pe have been source-localized to the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)--a frontal structure implicated in both cognitive and affective processing, as well as autonomic nervous system (ANS) modulation. The current study sought to examine the relationships among the ERN, the Pe, two autonomic measures, and behavior. Electroencephalogram (EEG), heart rate (HR), and skin conductance (SC) were recorded while subjects performed a two-choice reaction-time task. In addition to the characteristic ERN-Pe complex, errors were associated with larger SCRs and greater HR deceleration. The ERN correlated with the number of errors, but was unrelated to ANS activity and compensatory behavior. Pe, on the other hand, was correlated significantly with SCR, and both SCR and Pe were significantly correlated with post-error slowing.     

Error-related brain potentials are differentially related to awareness of response errors: evidence from an antisaccade task

The error negativity (Ne/ERN) and error positivity (Pe) are two components of the event-related brain potential (ERP) that are associated with action monitoring and error detection. To investigate the relation between error processing and conscious self-monitoring of behavior, the present experiment examined whether an Ne and Pe are observed after response errors of which participants are unaware. Ne and Pe measures, behavioral accuracy, and trial-to-trial subjective accuracy judgments were obtained from participants performing an antisaccade task, which elicits many unperceived, incorrect reflex-like saccades. Consistent with previous research, subjectively unperceived saccade errors were almost always immediately corrected, and were associated with faster correction times and smaller saccade sizes than perceived errors. Importantly, irrespective of whether the participant was aware of the error or not, erroneous saccades were followed by a sizable Ne. In contrast, the Pe was much more pronounced for perceived than for unperceived errors. Unperceived errors were characterized by the absence of posterror slowing. These and other results are consistent with the view that the Ne and Pe reflect the activity of two separate error monitoring processes, of which only the later process, reflected by the Pe, is associated with conscious error recognition and remedial action.     

Electrophysiological correlates of error correction

Evidence in the literature for the proposed relationship between the error-related negativity (ERN) and error correction is rather limited and inconsistent. We investigated corrective behavior and the ERN in two groups of participants who performed a flanker task. The correction-instructed group was asked to immediately correct all encountered errors. The noninstructed group was unaware that corrective responses were recorded. We found a negative deflection following corrected errors that peaked at 200-240 ms after the error. We refer to this negativity in the ERP waveform as correction-related negativity (CoRN). We assume that the correction-related negativity reflects evaluative functions of the motor system necessary for error corrections. ERN latency and amplitude were modulated by the occurrence and temporal characteristics of immediate corrections. These results are discussed within the framework of current models of performance monitoring.     

Strategic control and medial frontal negativity: beyond errors and response conflict

Errors in timed choice tasks typically produce an error-related negativity (ERN) in the event-related potential (ERP). The error specificity of the ERN has been challenged by studies showing a correct response negativity (CRN). Forty-five participants engaged in a flanker task in which both compatibility between flankers and target and the probability of compatible flankers were manipulated. Correct responses elicited a CRN, the amplitude of which increased with the degree of mismatch between the presence of conflict and conflict probability, even on low-conflict (compatible) trials. The fronto-central N2 component was larger on high-conflict (incompatible) correct response trials. However, in contrast to some recent accounts, this N2 was largest for highly probable stimuli. These findings suggest revision to models of the effects of conflict on response-related negativity to account for strategic adjustments made in preparation for the response.     

Neural correlates of error processing reflect individual differences in interoceptive sensitivity

Although self-monitoring is an important process for adaptive behaviors in multiple domains, the exact relationship among different internal monitoring systems is unclear. Here, we aimed to determine whether and how physiological monitoring (interoception) and behavioral monitoring (error processing) are related to each other. To this end we examined within-subject correlations among measures representing each function. Score on the heartbeat counting task (HCT) was used as a measure of interoceptive awareness. The amplitude of two event-related potentials (error-related negativity [ERN] and error-positivity [Pe]) elicited in error trials of a choice-reaction task (Simon task) were used as measures of error processing. The Simon task presented three types of stimuli (objects, faces showing disgust, and happy faces) to further examine how emotional context might affect inter-domain associations. Results showed that HCT score was robustly correlated with Pe amplitude (the later portion of error-related neural activity), irrespective of stimulus condition. In contrast, HCT score was correlated with ERN amplitude (the early component) only when participants were presented with disgust-faces as stimuli, which may have automatically elicited a physiological response. Behavioral data showed that HCT score was associated with the degree to which reaction times slowed after committing errors in the object condition. Cardiac activity measures indicated that vigilance level would not explain these correlations. These results suggest a relationship between physiological and behavioral monitoring. Furthermore, the degree to which behavioral monitoring relies on physiological monitoring appears to be flexible and depend on the situation.     

Action monitoring in motor control: ERPs following selection and execution errors in a force production task

Action monitoring has been studied in many tasks by means of measuring the error-related negativity (Ne/ERN), but never in a motor control task requiring precise force production. Errors in discrete choice reaction tasks are the result of incorrect selections, but errors in force production can also arise from incorrect executions. ERPs were obtained while participants produced low or high isometric forces with their left or right hand. As expected, incorrect choices of hand elicited an Ne/ERN. Interestingly, Ne/ERNs were also present in the less discrete selection error of an incorrect choice of force, but only when erroneously a low instead of a high force was chosen. In both force ranges, no Ne/ERNs were found after errors in execution. These errors showed a large positivity in feedback ERPs and, similar to correct responses, a prolonged negativity in response ERPs. We propose that, compared to selection errors, the time uncertainty aspects of execution errors and the resulting changing response representations prohibit error detection by the internal monitoring system responsible for generating the Ne/ERN.     

Speeding up older adults: age-effects on error processing in speed and accuracy conditions

Behavioral performance in older adults is often characterized by normal error rates but longer response latencies compared to younger adults. The slowing of reaction times might reflect a compensatory strategy to avoid errors and might be associated with performance monitoring alterations. The present study investigated whether the ability to compensate for potential deficits influences age-related differences in performance monitoring. A modified flanker task was used with either accuracy or speed instruction. Both groups showed reliable differences between conditions: accuracy, reaction times and error-related negativities were reduced in the speed compared with the accuracy condition. Older adults showed smaller error-related negativities compared with younger adults and the reduction was more pronounced in the speed condition. Further, similar-sized error-related and correct-related negativities were found in older adults. Results indicate that performance monitoring deficits in older adults are related to deficits in behavioral performance, at least if they are forced to respond quickly.     

Error-related brain activity in extraverts: Evidence for altered response monitoring in social context

While the personality trait of extraversion has been linked to enhanced reward sensitivity and its putative neural correlates, little is known about whether extraverts’ neural circuits are particularly sensitive to social rewards, given their preference for social engagement and social interactions. Using event-related potentials (ERPs), this study examined the relationship between the variation on the extraversion spectrum and a feedback-related ERP component (the error-related negativity or ERN) known to be sensitive to the value placed on errors and reward. Participants completed a forced-choice task, in which either rewarding or punitive feedback regarding their performance was provided, through either social (facial expressions) or non-social (verbal written) mode. The ERNs elicited by error trials in the social – but not in non-social – blocks were found to be associated with the extent of one's extraversion. However, the directionality of the effect was in contrast with the original prediction: namely, extraverts exhibited smaller ERNs than introverts during social blocks, whereas all participants produced similar ERNs in the non-social, verbal feedback condition. This finding suggests that extraverts exhibit diminished engagement in response monitoring – or find errors to be less salient – in the context of social feedback, perhaps because they find social contexts more predictable and thus more pleasant and less anxiety provoking.     

The effect of erroneous responses on response monitoring in patients with major depressive disorder: a study with event-related potentials

Perceived failure is reported to have detrimental effects on subsequent performance in patients with major depressive disorder. We investigated the error-related negativity (ERN)/error negativity (Ne), an electrophysiological correlate of response monitoring, using a 64-channel EEG. Sixteen patients with DSM-IV major depressive disorder and 16 matched controls participated in an Eriksen flanker task with continuous performance feedback that signaled monetary reward. Compared to controls, patients with major depressive disorder showed a less negative ERN/Ne in error trials following error trials. This result might reflect impaired response monitoring processes in major depressive disorder resulting from an underactivity in a central reward pathway and/or a deficit in strategic reasoning.     

Response monitoring and cognitive control in childhood obesity

The ability to discern when actions deviate from goals and adjust behavior accordingly is crucial for efforts at self-regulation, including managing one's weight. We examined whether children with obesity differed from controls in response monitoring, an aspect of cognitive control that involves registering one's errors. Participants performed a cognitive interference task, responding to the colors of arrows while ignoring their orientations, and error-related neural activity was indexed via response-locked event-related potentials (ERPs). Compared to controls, participants with obesity exhibited significantly blunted “error-related negativity”, an ERP component linked to response monitoring. Participants with obesity also exhibited a marginally blunted “error-related positivity”, an ERP component linked to late-stage error processing, as well as in behavioral indices of cognitive control. These results suggest that childhood obesity may be associated with reduced response monitoring and that this aspect of cognitive control may play an important role in health-related self-regulatory behavior.     

Executive control and response expectancy: A Laplacian ERP study

The event‐related potential called “Error Negativity” (Ne, ERN), which appears when subjects commit errors in choice reaction time tasks, is a marker of response monitoring. By introducing a response probability bias, we show that the Ne is sensitive to response expectancy. We further show that the small negativity evoked by correct responses (Ne‐like, CRN) is also sensitive to response expectancy: On unexpected responses, the former decreases while the latter increases to such an extent that the amplitudes of the two components are in the same range of magnitude. Although the sensitivity of the Ne to response expectancy is compatible with the current models accounting for the Ne, the common sensitivity of the Ne and the Ne‐like supports the idea that they reflect functionally similar monitoring processes.     

The error-related negativity as a state and trait measure: motivation, personality, and ERPs in response to errors

This study examines changes in the error-related negativity (ERN/Ne) related to motivational incentives and personality traits. ERPs were gathered while adults completed a four-choice letter task during four motivational conditions. Monetary incentives for finger and hand accuracy were altered across motivation conditions to either be equal or favor one type of accuracy over the other in a 3:1 ratio. Larger ERN/Ne amplitudes were predicted with increased incentives, with personality moderating this effect. Results were as expected: Individuals higher on conscientiousness displayed smaller motivation-related changes in the ERN/Ne. Similarly, those low on neuroticism had smaller effects, with the effect of Conscientiousness absent after accounting for Neuroticism. These results emphasize an emotional/evaluative function for the ERN/Ne, and suggest that the ability to selectively invest in error monitoring is moderated by underlying personality.     

The brain regulation mechanism of error monitoring in impulsive children with ADHD—An analysis of error related potentials

The objective of this study was to investigate the brain mechanism involved in the regulation of impulsivity in children with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) through error detection as well as error monitoring. The subjects in this study included 7–11-year-old impulsive ADHD children as well as normal children and adult controls. Error related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe) were measured. ERN peak latency from the children groups was delayed significantly when compared with the adult group; however, no significant difference in ERN amplitude was found among the three groups. Impulsive ADHD children had the earliest peak latency of Pe. In addition, the average Pe amplitude in impulsive children was significantly smaller than in adults (Cz and Pz), and smaller than in normal children (Pz). Late conscious cognitive processing of error is significantly weaker in impulsive ADHD children, suggesting a serious deficit of late error monitoring, rather than error detection.     

Brain potentials associated with expected and unexpected good and bad outcomes

The error-related negativity (ERN) is an event-related brain potential observed when subjects receive feedback indicating errors or monetary losses. Evidence suggests that the ERN is larger for unexpected negative feedback. The P300 has also been shown to be enhanced for unexpected feedback, but does not appear to be sensitive to feedback valence. The present study evaluated the role of expectations on the ERN and P300 in two experiments that manipulated the probability of negative feedback (25%, 50%, or 75%) on a trial-by-trial basis in experiment 1, and by varying the frequency of positive and negative feedback across blocks of trials in experiment 2. In both experiments, P300 amplitude was larger for unexpected feedback; however, the ERN was equally large for expected and unexpected negative feedback. These results are discussed in terms of the potential role of expectations in processing errors and negative feedback.     

Error-related processing during a period of extended wakefulness

The nature of error detection as manifested by the error-related negativity was examined in both a Sternberg memory search task and a visual search task. Both tasks were performed in conditions with consistent or varied stimulus-response mapping and loads of three or six letters. After subjects were trained extensively in all conditions, they performed the tasks throughout the night without sleeping. The data suggest that the effectiveness of error detection decreases over time because of a decrease in the quality of perceptual processing. Error detection also suffers when performance requires more search-related resources. In both cases, the representation of the correct response is compromised. These results indicate that error detection depends on the same perceptual and cognitive processes that are required for correct performance.     

Temporal dynamics of conflict monitoring and the effects of one or two conflict sources on error-(related) negativity

The present electrophysiological study investigated the temporal development of response conflict and the effects of diverging conflict sources on error(-related) negativity (Ne). Eighteen participants performed a combined stop-signal flanker task, which was comprised of two different conflict sources: a left-right and a go-stop response conflict. It is assumed that the Ne reflects the activity of a conflict monitoring system and thus increases according to (i) the number of conflict sources and (ii) the temporal development of the conflict activity. No increase of the Ne amplitude after double errors (comprising two conflict sources) as compared to hand- and stop-errors (comprising one conflict source) was found, whereas a higher Ne amplitude was observed after a delayed stop-signal onset. The results suggest that the Ne is not sensitive to an increase in the number of conflict sources, but to the temporal dynamics of a go-stop response conflict.