Circumcision as a primary HIV preventive: Extrapolating from the available data

Billions of dollars to circumcise millions of African males as an HIV infection prevention have been sought, yet the effectiveness of circumcision has not been demonstrated. Data from 109 populations comparing HIV prevalence and incidence in men based on circumcision status were evaluated using meta-regression. The impact on the association between circumcision and HIV incidence/prevalence of the HIV risk profile of the population, the circumcision rates within the population and whether the population was in Africa were assessed. No significant difference in the risk of HIV infection based on the circumcision status was seen in general populations. Studies of high-risk populations and populations with a higher prevalence of male circumcision reported significantly greater odds ratios (odds of intact man having HIV) (p < .0001). When adjusted for the impact of a high-risk population and the circumcision rate of the population, the baseline odds ratio was 0.78 (95% CI = 0.56–1.09). No consistent association between presence of HIV infection and circumcision status of adult males in general populations was found. When adjusted for other factors, having a foreskin was not a significant risk factor. This undermines the justification for using circumcision as a primary preventive for HIV infection.     

Traditional male circumcision for reducing the risk of HIV infection: perspectives of young people in South Africa

Increasing evidence suggests that medical male circumcision is associated with a reduced risk of HIV infection for men in sub-Saharan Africa. The aim of this study was to understand the importance of male circumcision as a risk-reducing strategy by exploring perceptions of young men and women. The study draws on focus-group discussions conducted with both men and women in South Africa. The findings suggest that there is widespread support for traditional male circumcision. Traditional circumcision is viewed as a key part of the initiation process. However, a number of concerns were raised about the traditional initiation process, which may lead to risky sexual behaviours, including early sexual debut and multiple sexual partners. In addition, the risky sexual behaviour of men puts women at risk of HIV infection.     

Wimbo: implications for risk of HIV infection among circumcised fishermen in Western Kenya

Medical male circumcision has been shown to reduce the risk of heterosexual transmission of HIV infection in men by up to 60% in three randomised controlled trials. However, not much anthropological literature exists to provide a holistic understanding of sexual behaviour among migrating fishermen who have been circumcised. This qualitative study used cultural ecology theory and anthropological methods to develop a more holistic understanding of Luo fishermen's sexual behaviour after circumcision when they migrate (wimbo) to islands in western Kenya. Results from focus-group discussions show that during wimbo there is a deviation from community norms governing sexual expression, influenced by the belief that circumcision provides protection against HIV infection. Through the exchange of sex for fish, circumcised men access new sexual partners in the destination beaches and engage in risky sexual behaviours without any HIV prevention measures. The processes and practices associated with wimbo may therefore help explain why rates of HIV infection are increasing among fisherfolk despite new interventions to combat HIV. These results have relevant implications for HIV-related intervention and policy in sub-Saharan Africa.     

Ethnic identity,region and attitudes towards male circumcision in a high HIV-prevalence country

We study how considerations of male circumcision (MC) as both a favourable practice and as protective against HIV are linked with ethnicity in sub-Saharan Africa, where many ethnic groups do not traditionally circumcise. We focus on Malawi, a country with a high HIV prevalence but low MC prevalence. Survey data from a population-based random sample in rural Malawi (N =3400) were analysed for ethnoregional patterns in attitudes towards MC. We used logit regression models to measure how reported circumcision status, region of residence and ethnic identity relate to attitudes towards circumcision. Overall, Malawians reported more negative than positive opinions about MC, but attitudes towards circumcision varied by ethnicity and region. The implications for agencies and governments aggressively scaling up the provision of MC are clear; acceptance of circumcision as a tool for HIV prevention could be low in societies divided by ethnoregional identities that also shape the practice of circumcision.     

Voluntary counseling and testing for couples: a high-leverage intervention for HIV/AIDS prevention in sub-Saharan Africa.

Most HIV infections in sub-Saharan Africa occur during heterosexual intercourse between persons in couple relationships. Women who are infected by HIV seropositive partners risk infecting their infants in turn. Despite their salience as social contexts for sexual activity and HIV infection, couple relationships have not been given adequate attention by social/behavioral research in sub-Saharan Africa. Increasingly studies point to the value of voluntary HIV counseling and testing (VCT) as a HIV prevention tool. Studies in Africa frequently report that VCT is associated with reduced risk behaviors and lower rates of seroconversion among HIV serodiscordant couples. Many of these studies point out that VCT has considerable potential for HIV prevention among other heterosexual couples, and recommend that VCT for couples be practiced more widely in Africa. However, follow-up in the area of VCT for couples has been extremely limited. Thus, current understandings from social/behavioral research on how couples in sub-Saharan Africa manage HIV risks as well as HIV prevention interventions to support couples' HIV prevention efforts have remained underdeveloped. It appears that important opportunities are being missed for preventing HIV infection, be it by heterosexual transmission or mother-to-child HIV transmission by mothers who have been infected by their partners. Based on an overview of documentation on VCT in sub-Saharan Africa, this paper proposes that increased attention to couples-focused VCT provides a high-leverage HIV prevention intervention for African countries. The second half of the paper indicates areas where VCT needs to be strengthened, particularly with respect to couples. It also identifies areas where applied social/behavioral research is needed to improve knowledge about how couples in sub-Saharan Africa deal with the risks of HIV infection.     

Assessment of the protective effect of male circumcisioin from HIV infection and sexually transmitted diseases: evidence from 18 demographic and health surveys in Sub-Saharan Africa

A cross-sectional comparative study based on secondary data of 18 Demographic Health Surveys (DHS) carried out in Sub-Saharan Africa starting from 2003 was conducted to assess the protective effect of male circumcision from HIV infection and STDs. From all surveys, information on 70,554 males aged 15-59 years was extracted. The association between male circumcision and HIV infection and STD symptoms (Genital discharge or genital ulcer/sore) was assessed using binary logistic regression. Adjustment was made for sexual history and basic sociodemographic variables. The weighted prevalence of HIV among men 15-59 years was 3.1%. In the bivairate analysis being uncircumcised was significantly associated with risk of HIV with Odds Ratio (OR) of 4.12 aged (95% CI: 3.85-4.42). The association was even more significant, 4.95 (95% CI: 4.57-5.36), after adjustment for number of lifetime sexual partners and socio-demographic variables. The risk associated with uncircumcision is significantly lower among younger men aged 15-29 years than those in 30-59 years age category. About 5.5% of the study subjects reported either genital discharge or genital sore/ulcer in the preceding 12 months of the surveys. Circumcision was not significantly associated with either of the symptoms of STD with adjusted OR of 1.07 (95% CI: 0.99-1.15). The study concludes that male circumcision provides a strong protection against acquisition of HIV infection. Hence, it can be considered as a possible way of reducing the spread of HIV infection in areas where the practice is rare. A comprehensive study to assess the association between circumcision and different types STDs is recommended.     

Print media reporting of male circumcision for preventing HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa

Objective

To review the types, content and accuracy of print media reports on male circumcision for preventing HIV infection among men in sub-Saharan Africa.

Methods

We conducted a trilingual search (English, French, Portuguese) of LexisNexis^® with the phrase “male circumcision” for the period from 28 March 2007 to 30 June 2008. The articles identified were screened for the central theme of male circumcision for preventing HIV infection in men in sub-Saharan Africa and for publication types targeting lay audiences – newspapers, magazines, newswires or newsletters. We judged the accuracy of the reports and determined the context, public perceptions, misconceptions and areas of missing information in the print media. We also explored whether the media could be better used to maximize the impact of male circumcision.

Findings

We identified 412 articles, of which 219 were unique and 193 were repeats. “Peaks and valleys” occurred in the volume of articles over time. Most articles (56.0%) presented male circumcision for the prevention of HIV infection in a positive light. Those that portrayed it negatively had an overall repeat rate 2.9 times higher than positive articles. Public health messages formulated by international health agencies were few but generally accurate.

Conclusion

The accuracy of the reports was good, although the articles were few and frequently omitted important messages. This suggests that public health authorities must help the media understand important issues. A communication strategy to sequence important themes as male circumcision programmes are scaled up would allow strategic coverage of accurate messages over time.     

Perceptions and knowledge of voluntary medical male circumcision for HIV prevention in traditionally non-circumcising communities in South Africa

Voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) has been recommended for the prevention of HIV transmission, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. Uptake of the campaign has been relatively poor, particularly in traditionally non-circumcising regions. This study evaluates the knowledge, attitudes and practices of medical male circumcision (MC) of 104 community members exposed to promotional campaigns for VMMC for five years. Results show that 93% of participants have heard of circumcision and 72% have heard of some health benefit from the practice. However, detailed knowledge of the relationship with HIV infection is lacking: 12.2% mistakenly believed you could not get HIV after being circumcised, while 75.5% believe that a circumcised man is still susceptible and another 12.2% do not know of any relationship between HIV and MC. There are significant barriers to the uptake of the practice, including misperceptions and fear of complications commonly attributed to traditional, non-medical circumcision. However, 88.8% of participants believe circumcision is an acceptable practice, and community-specific promotional campaigns may increase uptake of the service.     

Male circumcision for HIV prevention: a prospective study of complications in clinical and traditional settings in Bungoma, Kenya

OBJECTIVE: Male circumcision reduces the risk of HIV acquisition by approximately 60%. Male circumcision services are now being introduced in selected populations in sub-Saharan Africa and further interventions are being planned. A serious concern is whether male circumcision can be provided safely to large numbers of adult males in developing countries. METHODS: This prospective study was conducted in the Bungoma district, Kenya, where male circumcision is universally practised. Young males intending to undergo traditional or clinical circumcision were identified by a two-stage cluster sampling method. During the July-August 2004 circumcision season, 1007 males were interviewed 30-89 days post- circumcision. Twenty-four men were directly observed during and 3, 8, 30 and 90 days post-circumcision, and 298 men underwent clinical exams 45-89 days post-procedure. Twenty-one traditional and 20 clinical practitioners were interviewed to assess their experience and training. Inventories of health facilities were taken to assess the condition of instruments and supplies necessary for performing safe circumcisions. FINDINGS: Of 443 males circumcised traditionally, 156 (35.2%) experienced an adverse event compared with 99 of 559 (17.7%) circumcised clinically (odds ratio: 2.53; 95% confidence interval: 1.89-3.38). Bleeding and infection were the most common adverse effects, with excessive pain, lacerations, torsion and erectile dysfunction also observed. Participants were aged 5 to 21 years and half were sexually active before circumcision. Practitioners lacked knowledge and training. Proper instruments and supplies were lacking at most health facilities. CONCLUSION: Extensive training and resources will be necessary in sub-Saharan Africa before male circumcision can be aggressively promoted for HIV prevention. Two-thirds of African men are circumcised, most by traditional or unqualified practitioners in informal settings. Safety of circumcision in communities where it is already widely practised must not be ignored.     

AIDS in Papua New Guinea: situation in the Pacific

There has long been reason to anticipate a major heterosexual epidemic of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in Papua New Guinea (PNG) and probably in the rest of Melanesia. From the social and behavioural perspectives, Melanesia is strikingly similar to other areas of the world with serious epidemics of AIDS. High levels of other sexually transmitted infections indicate behaviour patterns that would also facilitate transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and presence of cofactors for HIV infection. Low levels of male circumcision parallel the situation in other epidemic areas. Near-parity by sex in cases reported so far in PNG is evidence that primary infection is largely heterosexual. The late start of a major epidemic in PNG can probably be attributed to: (a) the relatively small aggregation of people in urban centres (even Port Moresby has only one-quarter of a million people); (b) a highway system that does not network across the whole country; (c) limited size of the organized commercial sex sector; and (d) possibly low level of chancroid to act as a cofactor. The situation is now changing. Over the last seven years, HIV infection, probably the highest in Port Moresby and mostly measured there, has been rising by about 60% per annum. This rise is genuine and, if sustained, would infect 10% of the adult population of PNG in little more than 12 years. Some countries of sub-Saharan Africa have witnessed such exponential rises.     

Male circumcision for protection against HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa: The evidence in favour justifies the implementation now in progress

This article responds to a recent ‘controversy study’ in Global Public Health by de Camargo et al. directed at three randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of male circumcision (MC) for HIV prevention. These trials were conducted in three countries in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and published in 2005 and 2007. The RCTs confirmed observational data that had accumulated over the preceding two decades showing that MC reduces by 60% the risk of HIV infection in heterosexual men. Based on the RCT results, MC was adopted by global and national HIV policy-makers as an additional intervention for HIV prevention. Voluntary medical MC (VMMC) is now being implemented in 14 SSA countries. Thus referring to MC for HIV prevention as ‘debate’ and viewing MC through a lens of controversy seems mistaken. In their criticism, de Camargo et al. misrepresent and misinterpret current science supporting MC for HIV prevention, omit previous denunciations of arguments similar to theirs, and ignore evidence from ongoing scientific research. Here we point out the flaws in three areas de Camargo et al. find contentious. In doing so, we direct readers to growing evidence of MC as an efficacious, safe, acceptable, relatively low-cost one-off biomedical intervention for HIV prevention.     

The HIV/AIDS pandemic: new ways of preventing infection in men

Nelson Mandela has recently said that HIV/AIDS is the greatest health crisis in human history. At the end of 2001, UNAIDS estimated that there were 40 million people living with the infection, with 5 million new cases, and 3 million deaths per year. About half the infected individuals are men, and heterosexual intercourse is the commonest route of infection. Although condoms remain the first line of defence, they are unpopular in parts of Africa, where the pandemic is worst, so an alternative is needed. Post-coital penile hygiene has received little attention. Wiping the glans penis and inner foreskin immediately after intercourse with an acidic solution like lemon or lime juice, or even vinegar, should immediately kill the virus and might prevent infection; clinical trials are urgently needed. Several studies in Africa and India have now conclusively demonstrated a 2-7-fold protective effect of male circumcision against HIV infection. Circumcision removes the inner foreskin and the frenulum, which are the prime sites of HIV entry into the penis. Since male circumcision also protects men from human papilloma virus infection, and their wives from cervical carcinoma, the procedure should be encouraged in developed and developing countries.     

Christians’ cut: popular religion and the global health campaign for medical male circumcision in Swaziland

Abstract

Swaziland faces one of the worst HIV epidemics in the world and is a site for the current global health campaign in sub-Saharan Africa to medically circumcise the majority of the male population. Given that Swaziland is also majority Christian, how does the most popular religion influence acceptance, rejection or understandings of medical male circumcision? This article considers interpretive differences by Christians across the Kingdom’s three ecumenical organisations, showing how a diverse group people singly glossed as ‘Christian’ in most public health acceptability studies critically rejected the procedure in unity, but not uniformly. Participants saw medical male circumcision’s promotion and messaging as offensive and circumspect, and medical male circumcision as confounding gendered expectations and sexualised ideas of the body in Swazi Culture. Pentecostal-charismatic churches were seen as more likely to accept medical male circumcision, while traditionalist African Independent Churches rejected the operation. The procedure was widely understood to be a personal choice, in line with New Testament-inspired commitments to metaphorical circumcision as a way of receiving God’s grace.     

Circumcision in the control of HIV? [letter

Ken Rankin (AH, Jan '94, p 34) rightly points out that more circumcisions are carried out than are justified on clinical grounds alone. However, the advent of AIDS raises a number of interesting points about the possible role of circumcision as an epidemiological tool for the control of HIV transmission. It has been reported that an absence of circumcision increases susceptibility to acquiring STDs. STDs, especially those that cause genital ulcer disease (such as syphilis, chancroid and genital herpes), are recognized major risk factors for the transmission of HIV. Furthermore, some studies have shown that the distribution of HIV seroprevalence in Africa is closely associated with the geographical pattern of circumcision practices, whilst other workers have shown an association between absence of circumcision and HIV seropositivity. In some societies where circumcision was formerly practiced on religious/cultural grounds, it has now largely been abandoned as a consequence of urbanization and the adoption of Western lifestyles. In such situations, a revival of this ancient custom might supplement other control measures against HIV transmission. The only proviso would be an insistence on sterile procedures. The devastating impact of AIDS, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, necessitates a consideration of all possible interventions.     

Circumcision in the control of HIV?

Ken Rankin (AH, Jan '94, p 34) rightly points out that more circumcisions are carried out than are justified on clinical grounds alone. However, the advent of AIDS raises a number of interesting points about the possible role of circumcision as an epidemiological tool for the control of HIV transmission. It has been reported that an absence of circumcision increases susceptibility to acquiring STDs. STDs, especially those that cause genital ulcer disease (such as syphilis, chancroid and genital herpes), are recognized major risk factors for the transmission of HIV. Furthermore, some studies have shown that the distribution of HIV seroprevalence in Africa is closely associated with the geographical pattern of circumcision practices, whilst other workers have shown an association between absence of circumcision and HIV seropositivity. In some societies where circumcision was formerly practiced on religious/cultural grounds, it has now largely been abandoned as a consequence of urbanization and the adoption of Western lifestyles. In such situations, a revival of this ancient custom might supplement other control measures against HIV transmission. The only proviso would be an insistence on sterile procedures. The devastating impact of AIDS, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, necessitates a consideration of all possible interventions.     

Geographical patterns of male circumcision practices in Africa: association with HIV seroprevalence

To ascertain whether male circumcision might explain some of the geographical variation in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) seroprevalence in Africa, we investigated the association between the practice of male circumcision at a societal level and HIV seroprevalence. Male circumcision practices for over 700 African societies were identified, and HIV seroprevalence in general adult populations from 140 distinct locations in 41 countries was obtained. In locations where male circumcision is practised, HIV seroprevalence was considerably lower than in areas where it is not practised. This study supports the hypothesis that lack of circumcision in males is a risk factor for HIV transmission.     

Male circumcision for HIV prevention: Awareness,risk compensation,and risk perceptions among South African women

Medical male circumcision (MMC) is a proven method of HIV risk reduction for men in southern Africa. MMC promotion campaigns and scale-up programmes are widely implemented throughout the Republic of South Africa. However, the impact of promoting MMC on women’s awareness, beliefs, and behaviours has been understudied. We conducted a self-administered anonymous survey of 279 women receiving health services in an impoverished township located in Cape Town, South Africa. Results showed that two in three women were unaware that male circumcision partially protects men from contracting HIV. Women who were aware of MMC for HIV prevention also endorsed beliefs that male circumcision reduces the need for men to worry about HIV and reduces the need for men to use condoms. Male circumcision awareness was also related to reduced perceptions of HIV risk among women. Multivariable models showed that women’s MMC awareness, circumcision risk compensation beliefs, and risk perceptions were associated with decreased condom use and higher HIV risk index scores defined as number of condomless vaginal intercourse X number of sex partners. These results suggest a need for MMC education efforts tailored for women living in communities with high-HIV prevalence where men are targeted for MMC.     

It's about TIME: engendering AIDS in Africa

This paper analyses how TIME magazine represents sub-Saharan African women in its coverage of HIV/AIDS. As rates of infection escalate across the continent, researchers are increasingly emphasising the need to understand the socioeconomic and cultural contexts that make women particularly vulnerable to infection. Yet popular media representations of AIDS continue to rely on older colonial imageries of Africa as the feminised, diseased 'dark continent'. This article identifies three major themes in TIME's representation of sub-Saharan African women and HIV/AIDS: the metaphor of Africa as a woman in crisis, the construction of women as the means of transmission, and the engendered nature of the debate about the impact of international development policies. It is argued that the reliance on familiar cultural narratives often obscures the epidemiological, economic and cultural realities within which sub-Saharan women live. Not merely a consequence of unprotected sex, AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa is also the result of global economics and politics, reflecting the inequities between the West and Africa, male and female, white and black. The paper concludes with a call for further research on the role of representations of HIV/AIDS and its actual routes of transmission.     

Condom avoidance and determinants of demand for male circumcision in Johannesburg, South Africa

BACKGROUND Circumcision is efficacious in reducing HIV acquisition in heterosexual males. The South Africa government has been reluctant to adopt a national circumcision programme, possibly due to concerns that circumcision may result in decreased condom use. OBJECTIVE To identify the determinants of demand for male circumcision, to examine variations by ethnicity, and to determine whether it is demanded to avoid condom use. METHODS 403 parents and 237 sons in Johannesburg, South Africa, were recruited through a randomized household survey, with oversampling to balance between blacks (n = 220), 'coloured' (mixed ethnicity) (n = 202) and whites (n = 218). The demand for male circumcision was estimated using a conjoint analysis, with each respondent randomly receiving four tasks comparing seven possible benefits-six identified through key informant interviews and one for condom avoidance. Respondents' choices were analysed using logistic regression, including stratified analyses to test for homogeneity. RESULTS Overall, circumcision's beneficial effects on HIV transmission (P < 0.001), sexually transmitted infection (STI) transmission (P?< 0.001), hygiene (P < 0.05) and sex (P < 0.05) were identified as determinants of demand, but the condom avoidance hypothesis was rejected as it was 'repulsive' to respondents (P < 0.001). Consistent results were found for blacks (P < 0.001) and coloured (P < 0.001), but not for whites who found condom avoidance attractive (P < 0.04), a result not explained by variations in wealth, age or paternal circumcision status. CONCLUSIONS Male circumcision programmes should be tailored to accommodate variations in the determinants of demand across the target population. We find that circumcision's protective effect against HIV acquisition in men is the only determinant to be found consistently across all ethnic groups in Johannesburg. We also find that concerns over condom avoidance may have been overstated. This said, male circumcision strategies should reinforce a range of HIV prevention strategies, including condom use, as we find evidence that whites may view circumcision as a means to avoid condom use.     

Traditional male circumcision in eastern and southern Africa: a systematic review of prevalence and complications

Objective

To systematically review studies on the prevalence and complications of traditional male circumcision (i.e. circumcision by a traditional provider with no formal medical training), whose coverage and safety are unclear.

Methods

We systematically searched databases and reports for studies on the prevalence and complications of traditional male circumcision in youth 10–24 years of age in eastern and southern Africa, and also determined the ages at which traditional circumcision is most frequently performed.

Findings

Six studies reported the prevalence of traditional male circumcision, which had been practised in 25–90% of all circumcised male study participants. Most circumcisions were performed in boys 13–20 years of age. Only two of the six studies on complications reported overall complication rates (35% and 48%) following traditional male circumcision. The most common complications were infection, incomplete circumcision requiring re-circumcision and delayed wound healing. Infection was the most frequent cause of hospitalization. Mortality related to traditional male circumcision was 0.2%.

Conclusion

Published studies on traditional male circumcision in eastern and southern Africa are limited; thus, it is not possible to accurately assess the prevalence of complications following the procedure or the impact of different traditional practices on subsequent adverse events. Also, differences in research methods and the absence of a standard reporting format for complications make it difficult to compare studies. Research into traditional male circumcision procedures, practices and complication rates using standardized reporting formats is needed.