Immunocytochemical localization of cathepsin D in rat neural tissue

The localization of cathepsin D (CD) in normal adult rat neural tissue was determined with an indirect immunoperoxidase technique utilizing rabbit anti rat brain CD followed by a horseradish peroxidase conjugate of the Fab portion of goat antirabbit IgG. The immunoreactive enzyme protein was distributed predominantly in a granular pattern, presumably lysosomal, in neurons and choroid plexus epithelium. Smaller amounts were detected in oligodendrocytes and ependymal cells. The neuronal localization included the perikaryon and its processes, was widely distributed, and displayed a range of staining intensities in different anatomical areas. Immunoreactive CD was heavily concentrated in brain stem and spinal cord motoneurons, large neurons of the caudate nucleus, neurons of several nuclear groups, especially the paraventricular and supraoptic, in the hypothalamus, and neurons of superior cervical and dorsal root ganglia. CD was also readily detected in brain stem sensory neurons, pyramidal cells of the hippocampus, inferior olive and Purkinje cells, but was absent or present in very small quantities in the granule cells of the cerebellar cortex, the more superficial layers of the neocortex, and smaller neurons of the caudate nucleus. This distribution suggests that CD may have a major role in specific chemical events in neural functions and peptidergic pathways and could be involved in the alterations of certain neural structures in disease states.     

Acidic lipids enhance cathepsin D cleavage of the myelin basic protein

Some acidic lipids including sulfatide and phosphatidylinositol were found to increase greatly the rate of cathepsin D cleavage of the myelin basic protein. Since a similar effect was seen when the substrate was changed to cytochrome C, but not when the enzyme was changed to pepsin, these acidic lipids seem to be acting on cathepsin D rather than on myelin basic protein itself. Even so, chemical modification studies suggest that this phenomenon is only seen when the myelin basic protein is in its native conformation. Succinylation of MBP increases its rate of cleavage by cathepsin D by at least tenfold and, in addition, with this modified and presumably denatured MBP as substrate, activation of cathepsin D is no longer seen with acidic lipids. These findings suggest that the native conformation of MBP is both an important determinant of its rate of cleavage by cathepsin D and is also essential for observing activation of this reaction by acidic lipids. The acidic lipids seem to alter the "extended active site" of cathepsin D in such a way as to enable this enzyme better to utilize the native myelin basic protein as a substrate. Cathepsin D has previously been implicated as the protease responsible for the release into cerebrospinal fluid in multiple sclerosis patients of an encephalitogenic fragment derived from myelin basic protein. It is possible that the elevated levels of cathepsin D and sulfatide that have previously been found associated with multiple sclerosis plaques in vivo act in concert to bring about the rapid cleavage and subsequent loss of the myelin basic protein from these localized regions in the myelin sheath.     

Specificity of brain cathepsin D: cleavage of model peptides containing the susceptible Phe-Phe regions of myelin basic protein

Brain cathepsin D, purified by affinity chromatography on Sepharose pepstatin columns, was incubated with synthetic peptides corresponding to the susceptible regions of the myelin basic protein encompassing the two Phe-Phe bonds. One peptide, Leu-Gly-Arg-Phe-Phe-Gly-Gly, was cleaved by cathepsin D at the Phe-Phe bond while another, Val-His-Phe-Phe-Lys-Asn-Gly, was resistant to cleavage. To determine if this was a result of His flanking the Phe-Phe bond, or chain length on the N-terminal side, two decapeptides were synthesized differing only in the presence or absence of His adjacent to Phe. The results show that both of the decapapetides were cleaved by cathepsin D at the Phe-Phe linkages. In addition, prolonged incubation led to release of N-terminal Lys, indicating an additional cleavage at the Phe-Lys bond. In contrast to the limited cleavage by cathepsin D, pepsin split all four peptides. These results support earlier work on the limited proteolysis of basic protein at the Phe-Phe bond and suggest additional sites upon prolonged exposure. Such peptides may have utility as alternative substrates for basic protein or as models for subsequent synthesis of possible inhibitors of the enzyme.     

Angiotensin generation in the brain and drinking: Indications for the involvement of endopeptidase activity distinct from cathepsin D

The dipsogenic activity of two artificial renin substrates, tetradecapeptide and tridecapeptide, was studied. The dose-response curves obtained with these peptides, following intracerebroventricular administration, were similar to that of angiotensin I. The angiotensin II antagonist, Sar¹, Ala⁸-angiotensin II, inhibited the dipsogenic effect of tetradecapeptide, indicating the conversion of the latter peptide into angiotensin II. The lower dipsogenic activity of tridecapeptide points to a conversion of this renin substrate into angiotensin III. Specific inhibition of tetradecapeptide induced drinking by the endopeptidase inhibitor N-acetyl-pepstatin suggests the involvement of an endopeptidase in the conversion of the renin substrates in the brain. Two endopeptidases present in the brain (cathepsin D and renin), were compared with respect to their capacity to generate angiotensin I from artificial renin substrate in vitro. Cathepsin D was active under only acidic pH conditions, whereas renin showed a wider pH range with maximal activity in the non-acidic region. Moreover, cathepsin D did not generate angiotensin I from natural, cerebrospinal fluid-angiotensinogen in vitro, and lacked dipsogenic activity following central administration. Small amounts of renin, however, were able to release angiotensin I from cerebrospinal fluid in vitro. In addition, this enzyme induced high dipsogenic activity upon intracerebroventricular injection. These results support the existence of a functionally active central renin-angiotensin system and provide an argument against the involvement of cathepsin D in the formation of angiotensin I in the brain.     

Cortical cathepsin D activity and immunolocalization in Alzheimer disease, critical coronary artery disease, and aging

The activity and immunocytochemical localization of cathepsin D in the frontal cortex were investigated in patients with Alzheimer disease (AD) and two groups of nondemented subjects; individuals with critical coronary artery disease (cCAD; >75% stenosis) and nonheart disease controls (non-HD). The cathepsin D activity significantly increased with age in the non-HD population. No such age-related increase was observed in either AD or cCAD. Enzymatic activity was significantly increased in only the midaged, but not the older AD and cCAD subjects compared to controls. Immunocytochemical reactivity paralleled cathepsin D enzymatic activity. Frontal cortex neurons displayed an increased accumulation of cathepsin D immunoreactivity in aging (non-HD controls) with a further increase in cCAD, especially in the midaged group. Such immunoreactivity was markedly increased in AD. There was also an apparent age-related increase in the number of cathepsin D immunoreactive neurons in the non-HD population and a disease-related increase in only the mid-aged AD and cCAD subjects compared to controls. Senile plaques (SP) occured in all AD patients, many cCAD, and a few of the oldest non-HD subjects, and they were immunoreactive to cathepsin D in each group. The data suggest a possible relationship between activation of cathepsin D and SP formation in AD, cCAD, and aging.     

Increased concentrations of immunoreactive cathepsin D in supraoptic nucleus of the Brattleboro rat

The distribution of cathepsin D, an aspartyl endopeptidase, was measured in selected, discrete nuclei of the forebrain of the Brattleboro rat by means of microdissection and radioimmunoassay. The results indicate that cathepsin D is widely distributed, but in varying amounts among nuclear groups in this region of the brain. High concentrations were detected in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei. In studies of the vasopressin-deficient Brattleboro rat, an increased content of cathepsin D in the supraoptic nucleus was observed compared to the heterozygous control. No differences were detected between homozygous and heterozygous Brattleboro rats in the caudate, medial preoptic, suprachiasmatic or paraventricular nuclei or globus pallidus. These results raise the possibility that brain cathepsin D may be involved in the physiological events related to fluid homeostatis.     

Substrate specificity of cerebral cathepsin D and high-Mr aspartic endopeptidase

The specificity of action of bovine brain cortex cathepsin D (EC 3.4.23.5) and high-Mr aspartic endopeptidase (EC 3.4.23.-) was studied with the vasoactive peptides renin substrate tetradecapeptide (RSTP), substance P (SP), and angiotensins I and II, and with model peptides--Lys-Pro-Ala-Glu-Phe-Phe (NO2)-Ala-Leu (I), Gly-Gly-His-Phe (NO2)-Phe-Ala-Leu-NH2 (II), and Abz-Ala-Ala-Phe-Phe-pNA (III). Cerebral aspartic peptidases show identical substrate specificity, cleaving the Leu10-Leu bond in RSTP and Phe-Phe in SP and peptide I-III, and not splitting angiotensins I and II. Because of the higher catalytic efficiency of cathepsin D (Kcat value), the specificity constants (Kcat/Km) for cathepsin D-catalyzed hydrolysis of substrates 1-111 are much higher than those for the high-Mr enzyme. High-Mr aspartic peptidase shares a number of properties with cathepsin D (sensitivity to pepstatin, substrate specificity, pH activity profile) and shows partial immunological identity; however, high-Mr aspartic peptidase has a specific activity 7-10 times lower than that of cathepsin D. The kinetic parameters of proteolysis of model peptides presented indicate that the high-Mr enzyme may be a complex of a single-chain cathepsin D with another polypeptide, although the possibility that it is an independent aspartic peptidase cannot be excluded.     

Immunolocalization of cathepsin D in the human central nervous system and central nervous system neoplasms

The cellular distribution of the lysosomal proteinase cathepsin D was studied in a series of 76 neoplasms and 18 non-neoplastic tissues from the human central nervous system, using a well-characterized polyclonal antibody in a peroxidase-antiperoxidase technique. In the normal and developing brain, cathepsin D is confined to neurons and choroid plexus epithelium. Strong granular cytoplasmic staining was present in neuronal and choroid plexus neoplasms, and in reactive macrophages. A large variety of other neoplasms also exhibited positive cytoplasmic staining, albeit usually of a weaker diffuse type. Cathepsin D cannot be considered a specific marker for neuronal or choroid plexus neoplasms, but the antiserum used in this study may be of value in antibody panels for the investigation of these tumours. Its localization may also be of value in embryological studies, particularly in the cerebellum, and in investigations of steroid hormone receptor-associated proteins in meningiomas and Schwannomas.     

Expression of NCAM mRNA and polypeptides in aging rat brain

In aging brain, degenerative as well as compensatory regenerative processes are believed to occur. The neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM is involved in developmental and regenerative processes in the brain. However, the role of NCAM in aging brain has not been characterized. In this study, the expression of NCAM mRNAs and polypeptides was investigated in aging rat brain. The 7.4 and 6.7 kb NCAM mRNAs were selectively downregulated during postnatal development, and the 5.2 and 2.9 kb NCAM mRNAs were upregulated. However, from postnatal day 40 to old age no change in NCAM mRNA classes was observed. The fraction of NCAM mRNA containing the VASE exon increased postnatally but remained stable during adult life. VASE, which is believed to modulate the binding capacity, seemed to be relatively more abundant in the 7.4 and 6.7 kb NCAM mRNAs, encoding transmembrane NCAM forms, than in the 5.2 and 2.9 kb NCAM mRNAs, coding for glycosyl phosphatidylinositol (GPI) linked NCAM. Conversely, insertion of exons a and AAG between exons 12 and 13, a region containing two fibronectin type III repeats, seemed to be more pronounced in 5.2 and 2.9 kb NCAM mRNAs than in the 7.4 and 6.7 kb mRNAs. During postnatal development an increase in the fraction of 6.7 kb NCAM mRNA containing the exons a and AAG was observed. However, during aging the fraction of NCAM mRNAs containing this exon combination seemed constant. At the protein level, NCAM-A was downregulated both during development and aging. No changes were observed during aging in the composition of soluble NCAM forms in the brain, cerebrospinal fluid or blood plasma. The amount of NCAM in rat brain decreased during postnatal development, but remained at a constant level from postnatal day 40 to old age.To conclude, several changes in NCAM expression occur during early postnatal development emphasizing the important role of this molecule in the morphogenetic processes. During aging, a significant selective downregulation of NCAM-A was observed indicating that in general only minor regenerative processes occur in the brain.     

The aging brain

A recent interest in aging of the nervous system is related to the remarkable increase in the numbers of elderly persons throughout the world. As a reflection of the added years, pathologies in the older person have also increased. Primary among those which affect the activities and behavior of these people are the dementias, especially Alzheimer's Disease. To focus on such problems, however, requires an understanding of the changes which take place in the normal aging nervous system. This paper reviews some of the accepted criteria for these changes as well as the possible attempts by the nervous system to alter its structure in response to these changes.     

组织蛋白酶L/G对创伤性深静脉血栓模型大鼠静脉壁的影响

背景：目前,深静脉血栓的分子病因学机制及其形成的核心调控网络仍未完全阐明,对于深静脉血栓的早期诊断预测也无理想的方法。 目的：研究组织蛋白酶L/G与创伤性深静脉血栓的预测。 方法：采用蚊式钳夹闭50只SD大鼠双侧股静脉的3个不同部位3 s随后予以模具制动制备大鼠创伤性深静脉血栓模型,根据股静脉血栓形成的不同阶段和生物学特征,将模型大鼠分为血栓形成前组、血栓形成组和无血栓形成组,另取10只正常大鼠作为对照组。在相应时间点取大鼠创伤静脉,提取总RNA,经过基因芯片技术筛选差异表达基因,并进一步应用real-time PCR进行验证。 结果与结论：基因芯片杂交结果发现组织蛋白酶L/G基因在各组间差异表达明显,其中血栓形成组最高,无血栓形成组和血栓形成前组次之,均明显高于对照组(P < 0.05);real-time PCR分析结果与基因芯片杂交分析结果相一致。说明局部静脉血管壁中组织蛋白酶L/G表达水平升高与创伤性深静脉血栓形成有关,可作为深静脉血栓形成早期诊断、预测的候选分子标志。     

Effect of acetyl-L-carnitine on the dopaminergic system in aging brain.

We studied the effect of acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR) on dopamine release and the effect of long-term acetyl-L-carnitine treatment on age-related changes in striatal dopamine receptors and brain amino acid levels. In striatal tissue that had been incubated with [3H]dopamine, acetyl-L-carnitine increased the release of [3H]dopamine evoked by electrical stimulation. In striatal tissue from aged mice administered acetyl-L-carnitine for 3 months, the release of [3H]dopamine evoked by electrical stimulation was higher than that of its aged control; the release after a second stimulation was similar in the two groups. There was a significant decline in the number of D1 striatal dopamine receptors with age. The Bmax was 51% lower in 1.5-year-old mice than in 4-month-old animals. Administration of acetyl-L-carnitine for 3 months diminished the reduction in the binding of [3H]SCH-23390. [3H]Spiperone binding to D2 receptors was not decreased with age and was not affected by acetyl-L-carnitine treatment. Age-related decreases in levels of several amino acids were observed in several brain regions. Acetyl-L-carnitine lessened the reduction in the level of taurine only in the striatum. The findings confirm the multiple effects of acetyl-L-carnitine in brain, and suggest that its administration can have a positive effect on age-related changes in the dopaminergic system.     

Impairment of cathepsin B immunoreactivity in the hippocampal nerve cells with aging in the elderly: Possible evidence for dysfunction of lysosomal proteolysis in relation to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease

Immunohistochemical localization of cathepsin B (CB) in the hippocampal nerve cells was examined in patients ranging from age 18 days to 82 years to examine the change of proteolytic activity of nerve cells with aging through the CB immunoreactivity. Although it varied from case to case, region to region, and to some degree cell to cell, generally, CB immunoreactivity in the nerve cells was weak in the newborn, strong from age 7 to about 60, and decreased in most nerve cells, or the number of nerve cells with impaired CB immunoreactivity increased, after about 60 years of age. This suggests impairment of protein metabolism and/or dysfunction of lysosomal proteolysis in the nerve cells with aging. The last finding may be important as a background or preceding phenomenon that may cause abnormal protein metabolism relating to the formation of neurofibrillary tangles and/or senile plaques with aging and in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The involvement of CB in the metabolism of Aβ-amyloid protein precursors (APP) and the possible close relation of presenilins to APP should also be considered.     

Reduced calcium uptake by rat brain mitochondria and synaptosomes in response to aging

Synaptosomes were isolated from cerebral cortex of 3-, 18- and 24-month-old male, Fisher 344 rats and 45Ca2+ uptake was measured at 1, 3, 5, 15 and 30 s time periods following 65 mM KCl depolarization. Identical experiments were performed in which 5 mM KCl was added to examine age-related changes in resting 45Ca2+ accumulation by synaptosomes. Both 'fast-' and 'slow-phase' voltage-dependent 45Ca2+ uptake were significantly reduced in synaptosomes from 18- and 24- vs 3-month-old rats. No age-related change in resting (5 mM KCl) 45Ca2+ accumulation was observed. ATP-dependent and respiration-linked 45Ca2+ uptake was examined in mitochondria isolated from whole brains of 3- and 28-month-old male, hooded Long-Evans rats. Both ATP-dependent and glutamate-malate-ADP stimulated 45Ca2+ uptake by mitochondria were markedly reduced in response to aging. Respiratory control ratios were the same for 3- and 28-month-old mitochondria, suggesting that the decrement in 45Ca2+ uptake was not caused by an age-related decline in respiratory activity of mitochondria. The results of this study show that both voltage-dependent calcium entry into presynaptic nerve terminals and calcium uptake by mitochondria in brain decline with advanced aging. Age-related changes in cytosolic calcium levels could underlie, at least in part, cellular decrements in brain observed with aging.     

Persistent protein damage despite reduced oxygen radical formation in the aging rat brain

The relation between cerebral oxygen radicals and the aging process was investigated in crude synaptosomal (P2) fractions from rats. The rate of formation of oxygen radicals was measured using the probe 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA), which is de-esterified and subsequently oxidized by oxygen radicals to a fluorescent product 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein (DCF). There was a significant age-dependent decrease in the formation rate of oxygen radicals, observed by decreased formation of DCF. No difference in oxygen radical formation was apparent between age groups following an in vitro challenge with an ascorbate/FeSO4 mixture. This age-dependent decrease in cerebral oxygen radical generation coincided with age-dependent increases in superoxide dismutase. No age-related alterations in lipid order in either the hydrophilic or lipophilic membrane regions were observed using fluorescence polarization analysis. Age-dependent losses in cerebral P2 tryptophan fluorescence (a measure of protein degradation), and increased liberation of [14C]protein fragments into the acid-soluble fraction (a measure of overall proteolytic activity) were observed. Results suggest that aging does not proceed as a result of elevated rates of generation of oxygen radicals, a finding that does not support the proposed free radical theory of aging. The observed age-dependent decrease in the formation of oxygen radicals does not effect membrane lipid order. These findings implicate modifications in proteins and activated protein catabolic pathways as major contributing factors in the normal physiological process of senescence.     

Increased hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha expression in rat brain tissues in response to aging

The present study observed changes in rat neural cells at various ages (3, 18, 24, and 30 months). With age, neural cells became large and were sparsely arranged, and the number of Nissl bodies decreased. In addition, hypoxia-inducible factor 1α expression increased with increasing age in hippocampal CA1 and CA3 regions, motor cortex, and the first subfolium, especially from 3 to 18 months. In the open-field test, grid crossing decreased with increasing age, especially from 18 months. The number of rearings reached a peak in the 18 months group, and then subsequently decreased. The results suggested that hypoxia-inducible factor 1α played an important role in the nervous system aging process.     

Dystrophic microglia in the aging human brain

We have studied microglial morphology in the human cerebral cortex of two nondemented subjects using high-resolution LN-3 immunohistochemistry. Several abnormalities in microglial cytoplasmic structure, including deramification, spheroid formation, gnarling, and fragmentation of processes, were identified. These changes were determined to be different from the morphological changes that occur during microglial activation and they were designated collectively as microglial dystrophy. Quantitative evaluation of dystrophic changes in microglia revealed that these were much more prevalent in the older subject (68-year-old) than in the younger one (38-year-old). Thus, we conclude that microglial dystrophy is a sign of microglial cell senescence. We hypothesize that microglial senescence could be important for understanding age-related declines in cognitive function.     

Genetic associations between cathepsin D exon 2 C-->T polymorphism and Alzheimer's disease, and pathological correlations with genotype

Genetic variations represent major risk factors for Alzheimer's disease (AD). While familial early onset AD is associated with mutations in the amyloid precursor protein and presenilin genes, only the e4 allele of the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene has so far been established as a genetic risk factor for late onset familial and sporadic AD. It has been suggested that the C-->T (224Ala-->Val) transition within exon 2 of the cathepsin D gene (CTSD) might represent a risk factor for late onset AD. The objective of this study was to investigate whether possession of the CTSD exon 2 T allele increases the risk of developing AD, and to determine whether this modulates the amyloid pathology of the disease in conjunction with, or independent of, the APOE e4 allele. Blood samples were obtained from 412 patients with possible or probable AD and brain tissues from a further 148 patients with AD confirmed by postmortem examination. CTSD and APOE genotyping were performed by PCR on DNA extracted from blood, or from frontal cortex or cerebellum in the postmortem cases. Pathological measures of amyloid beta protein (Abeta), as plaque Abeta40 and Abeta42(3) load and degree of cerebral amyloid angiopathy were made by image analysis or semiquantitative rating, respectively. CTSD genotype frequencies in AD were not significantly different from those in control subjects, nor did these differ between cases of early or late onset AD or between younger and older controls. There was no gene interaction between the CTSD T and APOE e4 alleles. The amount of plaque Abeta40 was greater in patients carrying the CTSD T allele than in non-carriers, and in patients bearing APOE e4 allele compared with non-carriers. Possession of both these alleles acted synergistically to increase levels of plaque Abeta40, especially in those individuals who were homozygous for the APOE e4 allele. Possession of the CTSD T allele had no effect on plaque Abeta42(3) load or degree of CAA. Possession of the CTSD T allele does not increase the risk of developing AD per se, but has a modulating effect on the pathogenesis of the disorder by increasing, in concert with the APOE e4 allele, the amount of Abeta deposited as senile plaques in the brain in the form of Abeta40.