Discoscope内窥镜与GlideScope可视喉镜用于声门显露困难患者气管插管效果的比较

目的 比较Discoscope内窥镜与GlideScope可视喉镜用于声门显露困难患者气管插管的效果.方法 择期行经口气管插管的全麻患者40例,Macintosh喉镜显露Cormach-Lehane分级Ⅲ或Ⅳ级,性别不限,年龄24 ～ 78岁,采用随机数字表法,将患者随机分为2组(n=20):GlideScope可视喉镜组(G组)和Discoscope内窥镜组(D组).记录声门显露情况、声门显露时间、气管插管情况、声门显露后至气管导管置入时间和气管插管时间.术后随访患者,记录咽喉出血和咽喉疼痛的发生情况.结果 与G组比较,D组声门显露时间延长,环状软骨按压率降低,声门显露至气管导管置入时间缩短,1次气管插管成功率升高(P＜0.05),1次声门显露成功率、2次声门显露成功率、2次气管插管成功率、气管插管时间、咽喉出血发生率和咽喉疼痛发生率差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 与GlideScope可视喉镜比较,Discoscope内窥镜用于声门显露困难患者有助于声门的显露,且可提高气管插管的成功机率.     

McGrath可视喉镜与Macintosh直接喉镜显露颈椎手术患者喉部结构的比较

目的 比较McGrath可视喉镜与Macintosh直接喉镜显露颈椎手术患者喉部结构的效果. 方法 50例颈椎手术患者采用随机数字表法随机分为McGrath组和Macintosh组,每组25例.麻醉诱导后,McGrath组先用Macintosh直接喉镜显露喉部结构并记录Cormack-Lehane分级(C/L分级),不插管,再改用McGrath可视喉镜显露喉部结构并插入气管导管.Macintosh组先用McGrath可视喉镜显露声门,再使用Macintosh直接喉镜显露喉部结构并插管.记录患者一般情况、气道评估指标(甲颏间距、张口度、Mallampati分级、颈部活动度)、喉镜显露C/L分级和插管并发症. 结果 两组间患者一般情况和气道评估指标差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).McGrath可视喉镜的C/L分级(Ⅰ级∶Ⅱ级∶Ⅲ级为34∶14∶2)显著优于Macintosh直接喉镜(Ⅰ级∶Ⅱ级∶Ⅲ级为13∶32∶5,P＜0.01). 结论 McGrath可视喉镜对喉部结构的显露优于Macintosh直接喉镜,提示该可视喉镜有助于颈椎手术患者的气管插管处理.     

GlideScope喉镜与Macintosh喉镜辅助双腔气管导管插管术效果的比较

目的 比较GlideScope喉镜与Macintosh喉镜辅助双腔气管导管插管术的效果.方法 选择胸科手术单肺通气的患者70例,ASA分级Ⅰ～Ⅲ级,年龄18 ～ 75岁,性别不限.采用随机数字表法,将患者分为2组(n=35)∶GlideScope喉镜组(G组)和Macintosh喉镜组(M组).麻醉诱导后,按照Cormack-Lehane分级评估Macintosh喉镜暴露声门程度.采用Macintosh喉镜(M组)和GlideScope喉镜(G组)辅助双腔气管导管插管术.记录Macintosh喉镜和GlideScope喉镜下Cormack-Lehane分级以及置入双腔气管导管的难易程度和双腔气管导管反向置管的发生情况;记录气管插管成功情况和气管插管时间.于气管插管前、气管插管后即刻和气管插管后3 min记录血压及心率.记录术后相关不良反应的发生情况.结果 与M组比较,G组气管插管时间延长,双腔气管导管置管困难程度升高,气管插管后即刻和气管插管后3 min血压升高(P＜0.05),首次气管插管成功率、双腔气管导管反向置管率、Comark-Lehene分级和各时点心率差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05);G组GlideScope喉镜下Cormack-Lehane分级优于Macintosh喉镜(P＜0.05).结论 与Macintosh喉镜相比,GlideScope喉镜辅助双腔气管导管插管术时能更好地暴露声门,改善气管插管条件,但方法较复杂,且插管反应较强.     

视频喉镜在垂体瘤患者气管插管中的应用

目的探讨视频喉镜在垂体瘤患者气管插管中的应用。方法选择择期行全麻垂体瘤手术患者51例,男19例,女32例,年龄18~71岁,ASAⅠ或Ⅱ级。随机将患者分为Macintosh喉镜组(M组,n=25)和视频喉镜组(VL组,n=26)。M组患者气管插管时使用Macintosh喉镜暴露声门,VL组患者使用电子视频喉镜暴露声门。测量患者颈部后仰度、张口度、甲颏距、颈围、下颌支长度、改良Mallampati分级及面罩通气难易程度。记录暴露声门时按压环状软骨的比例、Cormack-Lehane分级、二次插管的比例和插管时间。结果VL组按压环状软骨的比例(7.7%vs48.0%)及Cormack-Lehane分级明显低于M组(P0.01),插管时间明显短于M组[(32.4±11.7)s vs(45.8±12.6)s](P0.01)。结论视频喉镜用于垂体瘤患者气管插管,可显著改善声门暴露,提高插管成功率并缩短插管时间。     

Tosight视频喉镜在Klippel-Feil综合征患儿气管插管中的应用

目的探讨Tosight视频喉镜在Klippel-Feil综合征(KFS)患儿气管插管中的应用效果。方法 20例KFS患儿,年龄4~12岁,ASAⅡ或Ⅲ级,随机均分为两组:Tosight可视喉镜组(T组)和Macintosh喉镜组(M组)。记录喉镜下喉部显露分级(Cormack-Lehane分级)、气管插管时间、气管插管次数、插管成功率和并发症发生情况。结果 T组全部完成气管插管,M组完成6例气管插管。T组气管插管时间明显短于、插管次数明显少于M组(P0.05)。两组患儿均无严重并发症发生。结论 Tosight视频喉镜用于KFS患儿气管插管操作简单,声门暴露清晰,插管成功率高,插管时间短,优于Macintosh喉镜。     

Airtraq可视喉镜与Macintosh喉镜用于双腔支气管插管的临床研究

目的 比较Airtraq可视喉镜和Macintosh喉镜用于双腔支气管插管的临床效果.方法 选择需行单肺通气的胸外科手术患者60例,随机均分为两组.A组使用Airtraq可视喉镜而M组使用Macintosh直接喉镜行双腔支气管插管.比较两组插管时间、Cormack/Lehane分级、插管难易度评分(IDS评分)、进入目标支气管的成功率、口腔损伤出血情况(唇、齿、舌及口腔黏膜).结果 A组MallampatiⅢ级患者的插管时间明显短于M组(P＜0.05);Cormack/Lehane分级及IDS评分明显优于M组(P＜0.05);IDS评分≥1分患者A组明显少于M组(P＜0.05).结论 与Macintosh喉镜相比,MallampatiⅢ级患者使用Airtraq可视喉镜插管速度更快,Airtraq可视喉镜下声门显露更佳,且插管难度更低.     

Airtraq与GlideScope视频喉镜在颈椎制动患者气管插管中的应用

目的 比较Airtraq与GlideScope视频喉镜与普通Macintosh直接喉镜在颈椎制动患者全麻气管插管中的应用效果以及对血流动力学的影响.方法 择期在气管插管全麻下的手术患者90例,ASA Ⅰ或Ⅱ级,年龄18～60岁,随机均分为Airtraq视频喉镜组(A组)、GlideScope视频喉镜(G组)和Macintosh直接喉镜组(M组).麻醉诱导后,采用手法控制稳定方法制动头颈部,分别使用Airtraq视频喉镜、GlideScope视频喉镜、Macintosh直接喉镜经口插管.记录三组声门暴露时间、导管置入时间、试插次数、失败例数、有无助手辅助、镜下Cormark-Lehane (C-L)分级,记录插管前、插管后即刻、插管后1、2、3 min的MAP和HR及不良反应.结果 A组声门暴露时间明显长于M组(P＜0.05);A组和G组的导管置入时间明显短于M组(P＜0.05),G组的插管总时间明显短于M组(P＜0.05).A、G两组需要助手辅助比例、插管失败率及并发症发生率均明显低于M组,C-L分级Ⅰ级患者例数明显多于、Ⅲ级患者例数明显少于M组(P＜0.05).M组插管后即刻和插管后1 min MAP明显高于、HR明显快于插管前(P＜0.05).插管后各时点M组HR均明显快于A组和G组(P＜0.05).结论 与Macintosh直接喉镜比较,Airtraq和GlideScope视频喉镜在颈椎制动患者气管插管中声门暴露良好,降低了插管难度,提高了插管成功率.     

GlideScope可视喉镜用于Mallampati Ⅲ级以上患者支气管插管的临床研究

目的 观察和比较GlideSope可视喉镜和普通喉镜用于Mallampati Ⅲ级以上患者支气管插管的效果.方法 择期行胸科手术患者48例,Mallampati Ⅲ或Ⅳ级,随机均分为两组,分别采用GlideSope可视喉镜(G组)和普通直接喉镜(D组)进行支气管插管.记录一次插管成功率、插管时间以及术后48 h气管插管相关并发症.结果 与D组比较,G组插管时间明显缩短,需要喉部按压的患者例数明显减少,且一次插管成功率明显升高(P＜0.05),术后声嘶和咽痛的发生率明显降低(P＜0.05).结论 GlideScope可视喉镜用于MallampatiⅢ级以上患者支气管插管的效果要优于普通喉镜.     

HC视频喉镜与Macintosh喉镜引导气管插管效果的比较

目的 比较HC视频喉镜与Macintosh喉镜引导气管插管的效果.方法 择期全麻患者60例,ASA分级Ⅰ或Ⅱ级,性别不限,年龄18 ～ 64岁,体重指数19 ～ 27 kg/m2,Mallampati分级Ⅰ或Ⅱ级,采用随机数字表法,将其随机分为2组(n=30):HC视频喉镜组(H组)和Macintosh喉镜组(M组).麻醉诱导后分别用HC视频喉镜和Macintosh喉镜引导经口气管插管.记录两组患者声门暴露时间、气管插管时间、Cormack-Lehane分级(用于计算声门暴露满意率)、环状软骨按压情况,观察气管插管并发症的发生情况.结果 与M组比较,H组声门暴露满意率升高,环状软骨按压次数降低(P＜0.05).两组患者声门暴露时间、气管插管时间和气管插管并发症发生率差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 HC视频喉镜引导气管插管的效果优于Macintosh喉镜.     

Truview EVO2喉镜用于模拟颈项强直患者气管插管的效果

目的评价Truview EVO2喉镜用于模拟颈项强直患者气管插管的效果。方法择期经口气管插管全麻手术患者100例,静脉麻醉诱导后使用硬质颈托固定其颈部,所有患者随机先后使用Truview EVO2喉镜和Macintosh喉镜显露喉部,并采用后一种喉镜辅助气管插管。记录Cormack-Lehane(C-L)分级,喉部结构显露时间,气管插管完成时间,一次插管成功率等。结果 Truview EVO2喉镜C-L分级显著优于Macintosh喉镜(P<0.05),喉部结构显露时间短于Macintosh喉镜(P<0.05),插管一次成功率显著高于Macintosh喉镜(P<0.05);但两种喉镜的气管插管完成时间差异无统计学意义。结论 Truview EVO2喉镜用于模拟颈项强直患者气管插管效果明显优于Macintosh喉镜,对于颈部活动受限患者具有很好的应用价值。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.