Carcinoma-associated fibroblast-like differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells

Carcinoma-associated fibroblasts (CAF) have recently been implicated in important aspects of epithelial solid tumor biology, such as neoplastic progression, tumor growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis. However, neither the source of CAFs nor the differences between CAFs and fibroblasts from nonneoplastic tissue have been well defined. In this study, we show that human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) exposed to tumor-conditioned medium (TCM) over a prolonged period of time assume a CAF-like myofibroblastic phenotype. More importantly, these cells exhibit functional properties of CAFs, including sustained expression of stromal-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) and the ability to promote tumor cell growth both in vitro and in an in vivo coimplantation model, and expression of myofibroblast markers, including alpha-smooth muscle actin and fibroblast surface protein. hMSCs induced to differentiate to a myofibroblast-like phenotype using 5-azacytidine do not promote tumor cell growth as efficiently as hMSCs cultured in TCM nor do they show increased SDF-1 expression. Furthermore, gene expression profiling revealed similarities between TCM-exposed hMSCs and CAFs. Taken together, these data suggest that hMSCs are a source of CAFs and can be used in the modeling of tumor-stroma interactions. To our knowledge, this is the first report showing that hMSCs become activated and resemble carcinoma-associated myofibroblasts on prolonged exposure to conditioned medium from MDAMB231 human breast cancer cells.     

The cultivation and identification of tumor stem cells from neuroblastoma derived tumor spheres

Background and Objective: Since the proposal of the tumor stem cell hypothesis, considerable interest has been devoted to the isolation and purification of tumor stem cells. Tumor stem cell enrichment from primary tumor derived cell spheres has been demonstrated in specific, serum-free media. This goal of this study is to establish a method of cultivating floating tumor spheres from neuroblastoma cells and to confirm that neuroblastoma spheres are rich in tumor stem cells. Methods: Bone marrow aspirates wer...     

肿瘤及肿瘤基质细胞释放的外泌体对肿瘤耐药产生的影响

恶性肿瘤已成为当今严重威胁人类健康的疾病之一,存在早发现难、治愈率低和预后差等三大难点.虽然,化疗是癌症治疗的主要手段,但由此产生的耐药也是当今影响疗效的最棘手问题之一,从而使患者面对无药可用的尴尬境地.外泌体(exosomes)作为细胞间信息传递的重要通讯员,在肿瘤耐药传递方面发挥重要作用.研究发现,肿瘤细胞和肿瘤微环境(tumor microenvironment,TME)中的基质细胞均可分泌携带耐药相关分子(包括蛋白质和miRNAs等)的外泌体,并通过外泌体在TME中相互作用,传递耐药分子,从而增强肿瘤细胞对药物的耐受性;同时肿瘤细胞外泌体还可以介导药物外排,从而影响药效;基质细胞也可与肿瘤细胞相互作用影响肿瘤细胞对药物的敏感性.同时,这些机制的发现也为克服肿瘤耐药提供了新思路,研究表明通过去除或抑制含耐药分子的外泌体,或者通过改变外泌体的成分(减少耐药分子或增加抗耐药分子),可在一定程度上逆转耐药.本文就肿瘤及肿瘤基质细胞释放的外泌体在肿瘤耐药中的作用以及由此而来的耐药逆转的研究进展作一综述.     

Endothelial derived factors inhibit anoikis of head and neck cancer stem cells

Recent evidence demonstrated that cancer stem cells reside in close proximity to blood vessels in human head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCC). These findings suggest the existence of a supporting perivascular niche for cancer stem cells. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of endothelial cell-secreted factors on the behavior of head and neck cancer stem-like cells (HNCSC). HNCSC were identified by sorting UM-SCC-22A (cell line derived from a primary squamous cell carcinoma of the oropharynx) and UM-SCC-22B (derived from the metastatic lymph node of the same patient) for CD44 expression and ALDH (aldehyde dehydrogenase) activity. HNCSC (ALDH+CD44+) and control (ALDH-CD44-) cells were cultured in ultra-low attachment plates in presence of conditioned medium from primary human endothelial cells. ALDH+CD44+ generated more orospheres than control cells when cultured in suspension. The growth factor milieu secreted by endothelial cells protected HNCSC against anoikis. Mechanistic studies revealed that endothelial cell-secreted vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) induces proliferation of HNCSC derived from primary UM-SCC-22A, but not from the metastatic UM-SCC-22B. Likewise, blockade of VEGF abrogated endothelial cell-induced Akt phosphorylation in HNCSC derived from UM-SCC-22A while it had a modest effect in Akt phosphorylation in HNCSC from UM-SCC-22B. This study revealed that endothelial cells initiate a crosstalk that protect head and neck cancer stem cells against anoikis, and suggest that therapeutic interference with this crosstalk might be beneficial for patients with head and neck cancer.     

Adipose tissue engineering: the future of breast and soft tissue reconstruction following tumor resection

Reconstructive surgeons have always been at the forefront of medical technology. The history of reconstructive surgery began with ablative surgery, which was followed by tissue and organ transplantation, leading to contemporary tissue reconstruction. The field of reconstructive surgery is poised at the next stage of its evolution, namely tissue regeneration. The field of tissue engineering has largely defined this evolutionary leap. One active area of investigation is the development of tissue engineering strategies for adipose tissue. Bioengineers, life scientists, and reconstructive surgeons are synergistically coupling expertise in areas such as cell culture technology, tissue transfer, cell differentiation, angiogenesis, computer modeling, and polymer chemistry to regenerate adipose tissue de novo for breast replacement and soft-tissue augmentation following tumor resection. This work presents the current state of the art in adipose tissue engineering, as well the clinically translatable strategies currently under development. Semin. Surg. Oncol. 19:302-311, 2000.     

Carcinoma cells that have undergone an epithelial-mesenchymal transition differentiate into endothelial cells and contribute to tumor growth

Hypoxia stimulates neoangiogenesis, promoting tumor outgrowth, and triggers the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), which bestows cells with mesenchymal traits and multi-lineage differentiation potential. Here, we investigated whether EMT can confer endothelial attributes upon carcinoma cells, augmenting tumor growth and vascularization. Following orthotopic implantation of MCF-7 human epithelial breast cancer cells into mice, tumors of different sizes were immunostained for markers of hypoxia and EMT. Larger tumors were well-vascularized with CD31-positive cells of human origin. Hypoxic regions, demarcated by HIF-1α staining, exhibited focal areas of E-cadherin loss and elevated levels of vimentin and the EMT-mediator FOXC2. Implantation of MCF-7 cells, co-mixed with human mammary epithelial (HMLE) cells overexpressing the EMT-inducer Snail, markedly potentiated tumor growth and vascularization, compared with MCF-7 cells injected alone or co-mixed with HMLE-vector cells. Intra-tumoral vessels contained CD31-positive cells derived from either donor cell type. FOXC2 knockdown abrogated the potentiating effects of HMLE-Snail cells on MCF-7 tumor growth and vascularization, and compromised endothelial transdifferentiation of mesenchymal cells cultured in endothelial growth medium. Hence, cells that have undergone EMT can promote tumor growth and neovascularization either indirectly, by promoting endothelial transdifferentiation of carcinoma cells, or directly, by acquiring an endothelial phenotype, with FOXC2 playing key roles in these processes.     

Nucleostemin基因在骨髓间充质干细胞诱导致瘤过程中的表达

目的研究骨髓间充质干细胞（MSC）诱导肿瘤发生的机制。方法用荧光差异显示技术（FDD）寻找差异基因;PCR、免疫组织化学、Western blotting加以验证;实时荧光定量反转录聚合酶链反应（Realtime RT—PCR）检测诱导致瘤细胞在裸鼠体内致瘤后致瘤组织的基因表达水平。结果FDD结果显示Nucleostemin（NS）基因高表达,与PCR、Western blotting显示结果一致。Realtime RT—PCR表明,NS基因在MSC、F6及3组F6致瘤组织细胞之间的表达水平差异有统计学意义（F=160,P〈0．05）。F6组NS基因表达水平为（0．0372±0．0019）,MSC基因表达水平为（0．0021±0．0002）,增高18倍（P〈0．05）;裸鼠皮下注射F6细胞后,第4、6、7周分离致瘤组织细胞内NS基因表达水平分别为（0．0504±0．0083）、（0．0995±0．0026）和（0．0614±0．0036）,呈上升趋势（与MSC对比,P值均〈0．05）。Western blotting及免疫组织化学染色证明F6细胞NS蛋白表达明显增高。结论NS基因与肿瘤细胞形成有关。     

Tumor irradiation increases the recruitment of circulating mesenchymal stem cells into the tumor microenvironment

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) migrate to and proliferate within sites of inflammation and tumors as part of the tissue remodeling process. Radiation increases the expression of inflammatory mediators that could enhance the recruitment of MSC into the tumor microenvironment. To investigate this, bilateral murine 4T1 breast carcinomas (expressing renilla luciferase) were irradiated unilaterally (1 or 2 Gy). Twenty-four hours later, 2 x 10(5) MSC-expressing firefly luciferase were injected i.v. Mice were then monitored with bioluminescent imaging for expression of both renilla (tumor) and firefly (MSC) luciferase. Forty-eight hours postirradiation, levels of MSC engraftment were 34% higher in tumors receiving 2 Gy (P = 0.004) than in the contralateral unirradiated limb. Immunohistochemical staining of tumor sections from mice treated unilaterally with 2 Gy revealed higher levels of MSC in the parenchyma of radiated tumors, whereas a higher proportion of MSC remained vasculature-associated in unirradiated tumors. To discern the potential mediators involved in MSC attraction, in vitro migration assays showed a 50% to 80% increase in MSC migration towards conditioned media from 1 to 5 Gy-irradiated 4T1 cells compared with unirradiated 4T1 cells. Irradiated 4T1 cells had increased expression of the cytokines, transforming growth factor-beta1, vascular endothelial growth factor, and platelet-derived growth factor-BB, and this up-regulation was confirmed by immunohistochemistry in tumors irradiated in vivo. Interestingly, the chemokine receptor CCR2 was found to be up-regulated in MSC exposed to irradiated tumor cells and inhibition of CCR2 led to a marked decrease of MSC migration in vitro. In conclusion, clinically relevant low doses of irradiation increase the tropism for and engraftment of MSC in the tumor microenvironment.     

Tumor-derived mesenchymal stem cells and orthotopic site increase the tumor initiation potential of putative mouse mammary cancer stem cells derived from MMTV-PyMT mice

The ability to transplant mammary cancer stem cells, identified by the phenotype CD24⁺CD29⁺CD49f⁺Sca-1^low, is dependent on the microenvironment in which the cells are placed. Using the MMTV-PyMT mouse model of mammary cancer, we now report two methods of tumor growth enhancement: contributions of tumor stroma in the form of tumor-derived mesenchymal stem cells and orthotopic vs. heterotopic transplantation sites. To support evidence of stem cell function, tumor-derived mesenchymal stem cells differentiated into adipocyte- and osteocyte-like cells after culture in specific medium. Co-injection of tumor-initiating cells with tumor-derived mesenchymal stem cells significantly increased tumor initiation compared to subcutaneous injection of TICs alone; co-injection also allowed tumor initiation with a single TIC. Interestingly, we observed the formation of sarcomas after co-injections of tumor-derived mesenchymal stem cells or mouse embryonic fibroblasts with TICs; sarcomas are not observed in spontaneous MMTV-PyMT tumors and rarely observed in injections of TICs alone. Tumor initiation was also significantly increased in the orthotopic injection site compared to heterotopic injections. We conclude that tumor stroma and orthotopic sites both enhance tumor initiation by mammary cancer stem cells.     

肿瘤干细胞的来源

肿瘤干细胞是肿瘤演化的单位,阐明肿瘤干细胞的来源对于肿瘤的防治有重要意义.综合近年相关文献和工作中的体会探讨肿瘤干细胞的可能来源、产生途径和机制.正常干细胞转化为肿瘤干细胞需要经历漫长的基因突变积累过程;诱导重编程形成多潜能干细胞是体细胞产生肿瘤干细胞的可能途径之一;肿瘤细胞返分化为肿瘤干细胞是肿瘤干细胞来源之一;上皮-间充质转换(EMT)是细胞可塑性的重要机制,在肿瘤细胞转移和肿瘤细胞干性形成中起重要作用,细胞融合诱导EMT可能是肿瘤干细胞形成的另一重要机制;此外,一些病毒感染可能与肿瘤干细胞形成相关.文章对肿瘤生物学性状复杂性的机制也进行了讨论.     

肿瘤干细胞研究进展

肿瘤是一种干细胞疾病.干细胞的基因突变导致正常的自我更新和分化失衡,干细胞转变成为肿瘤干细胞(TSC),而后者具有增殖分化形成肿瘤的能力.TSC的存在已在造血系统肿瘤中得到证实,最近亦有在实体瘤中的相关报道.现对TSC及其在各种肿瘤中的研究进展作一综述.     

Exosomes derived from human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells promote tumor growth in vivo

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can promote tumor growth in a mouse xenograft model, but the exact mechanism remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the effects of bone marrow MSC-derived exosomes (MSC-exosomes) on tumor growth in vitro and in vivo. Our results showed that MSC-exosomes promoted tumor growth in vivo. MSC-exosomes enhanced vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression in tumor cells by activating extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 (ERK1/2) pathway. Inhibition of ERK1/2 activation reserved the increase of VEGF level by MSC-exosomes. Our findings demonstrate a new mechanism through which MSC-exosome-mediated cell-cell interactions may contribute to tumor progression.     

Role of stem cell derived exosomes in tumor biology

Exosomes are nano‐scale messengers loaded with bio‐molecular cargo of RNA, DNA, and Proteins. As a master regulator of cellular signaling, stem cell (both normal, and cancer stem cells) secreted exosome orchestrate various autocrine and paracrine functions which alter tumor micro‐environment, growth and progression. Exosomes secreted by one of the two important stem cell phenotypes in cancers a) Mesenchymal stem cells, and b) Cancer stem cells not only promote cancerous growth but also impart therapy resistance in cancer cells. In tumors, normal or mesenchymal stem cell (MSCs) derived exosomes (MSC‐exo) modulate tumor hallmarks by delivering unique miRNA species to neighboring cells and help in tumor progression. Apart from regulating tumor cell fate, MSC‐exo are also capable of inducing physiological processes, for example, angiogenesis, metastasis and so forth. Similarly, cancer stem cells (CSCs) derived exosomes (CSC‐exo) contain stemness‐specific proteins, self‐renewal promoting regulatory miRNAs, and survival factors. CSC‐exo specific cargo maintains tumor heterogeneity and alters tumor progression. In this review we critically discuss the importance of stem cell specific exosomes in tumor cell signaling pathways with their role in tumor biology.     

Differentiation of human embryonic stem cells into immunostimulatory dendritic cells under feeder-free culture conditions

PURPOSE: The objective of this study was to develop a scalable and broadly applicable active immunotherapy approach against cancer, circumventing the limitations typically encountered with autologous vaccination strategies. We hypothesized that human embryonic stem cells (hESC) can serve as a virtually unlimited source for generating dendritic cells (DC) with potent antigen-presenting function. Here, we investigated the developmental processes and requirements for generating large numbers of mature, antigen-presenting DC from pluripotent hESC. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: A feeder cell-free culture system was developed to differentiate hESC into mature DC sequentially through hematopoietic and myeloid precursor stages. RESULTS: Using this method, we were able to yield large numbers of mature immunostimulatory DC from hESC to enable clinical investigation. Upon activation, the hESC-derived DC secreted interleukin-12p70, migrated in response to MIP-3beta, and exhibited allostimulatory capacity. Most importantly, antigen-loaded, hESC-derived DC were capable of stimulating potent antigen-specific CD8(+) T-cell responses in an HLA class I-matched semiallogeneic assay system. Moreover, HLA class II-mismatched hESC-derived DC induced a potent Th1-type cytokine response without expanding FOXP3(+) regulatory T cells in vitro. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest the development of a novel active immunotherapy platform to stimulate potent T-cell immunity in patients with intractable diseases, such as cancer or viral infection.     

Targeted methylation of two tumor suppressor genes is sufficient to transform mesenchymal stem cells into cancer stem/initiating cells

Although DNA hypermethylation within promoter CpG islands is highly correlated with tumorigenesis, it has not been established whether DNA hypermethylation within a specific tumor suppressor gene (TSG) is sufficient to fully transform a somatic stem cell. In this study, we addressed this question using a novel targeted DNA methylation technique to methylate the promoters of HIC1 and RassF1A, two well-established TSGs, along with a two-component reporter system to visualize successful targeting of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) as a model cell system. MSCs harboring targeted promoter methylations of HIC1/RassF1A displayed several features of cancer stem/initiating cells including loss of anchorage dependence, increased colony formation capability, drug resistance, and pluripotency. Notably, inoculation of immunodeficient mice with low numbers of targeted MSC resulted in tumor formation, and subsequent serial xenotransplantation and immunohistochemistry confirmed the presence of stem cell markers and MSC lineage in tumor xenografts. Consistent with the expected mechanism of TSG hypermethylation, treatment of the targeted MSC with a DNA methyltransferase inhibitor reversed their tumorigenic phenotype. To our knowledge, this is the first direct demonstration that aberrant TSG hypermethylation is sufficient to transform a somatic stem cell into a fully malignant cell with cancer stem/initiating properties.