Discourse analysis of logical memory recall in normal aging and in dementia of the Alzheimer type

This study examined the nature of errors in prose recall made in dementia compared with normal aging. Responses by 48 young adults, 47 nondemented older adults, and 70 people with very mild or mild Alzheimer's disease to the Logical Memory subtest of the Wechsler Memory Scale were examined in a propositional analysis. Compared with young adults, healthy older adults showed good immediate recall but deficits in retention over a delay. Demented individuals made errors of omission, not commission, at immediate recall. These errors probably reflect difficulty with attentional control rather than memory per se. In terms of clinical implications, veridical scoring of the Logical Memory subtest provides more sensitive detection of very mild dementia of the Alzheimer type than the current standard criteria for scoring.     

Factor analysis of the Wechsler memory scale: Is the associate learning subtest an unclear measure?

A factor analysis of the Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS) with 30-minute delayed recall scores (percent retained) for the Logical Memory, Visual Reproduction, and Associate Learning subtests indicated that this variant of the WMS taps different types of learning and memory for new material. With regard to the verbal learning/recall subtests, Logical Memory appears to be related to attention/ concentration ability, while Associate Learning is relatively independent. The results also showed that both the easy and hard items from Associate Learning tap the same ability, providing evidence that this subtest is a measure of rote verbal learning. These results support the clinical utility of the WMS with delayed recalls in neuropsychiatric populations.     

Stability of performance on the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test.

Stability of performance on the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test (HVLT) was assessed in 45 healthy elderly subjects over a 9-month period. Stability coefficients were moderate but statistically significant for total recall (r = 0.50), true-positive recognitions (r = 0.66), and false-positive errors (r = 0.42). These correlations are comparable to test-retest correlations reported for other clinical tests of verbal memory (e.g., Logical Memory subtest of the Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised, California Verbal Learning Test) and are sufficient for its clinical use.     

Recommendation for test administration in litigation: never administer the category test to a blindfolded subject.

Fox (1994) purports to determine the appropriateness of the normative data for the Logical Memory subtest of the Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised for individuals in litigation and suggests that "...many of these people would have been incorrectly diagnosed as having a neuropsychological problem that did not exist." His data do not support such a conclusion, but rather appear simply to demonstrate that patients in litigation concerning potentially painful orthopedic and/or emotional injuries can, as a group, perform slightly below average levels on memory tests.     

The wechsler memory scale and closed head injury

Compared a sample of Ss from the general population (N = 116) with a sample of head-injured patients (N = 70) whose injuries varied from the mild to the very severe. In a criterion factor analysis it was found that the WMS subtests of Logical Memory and Associate Learning were related closely to the criterion of head injury. Both samples were divided at age 35, and analyses of variance were carried out on the four subsamples. The findings were that the younger head-injured patients had very severe memory deficits, whereas these deficits were much less marked with the older head-injured Ss. The most marked deficits were found on WMS Factor I (verbal learning and immediate recall). WMS Factors II and III displayed significant but less clearly marked cognitive deficits. In this study, analysis in terms of the three WMS Factors enabled group and age differences in memory functioning to be highlighted in an unambiguous manner, which suggested that the present factor system is very useful for describing and identifying some types of memory deficit.     

Association of KIBRA and memory

We report on the association of KIBRA with memory in two samples of older individuals assessed on either memory for semantically unrelated word stimuli (Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, n = 2091), or a measure of semantically related material (the WAIS Logical Memory Test of prose-passage recall, n = 542). SNP rs17070145 was associated with delayed recall of semantically unrelated items, but not with immediate recall for these stimuli, nor with either immediate or delayed recall for semantically related material. The pattern of results suggests a role for the T → C substitution in intron 9 of KIBRA in a component of episodic memory involved in long-term storage but independent of processes shared with immediate recall such as rehearsal involved in acquisition and rehearsal or processes.     

Age differences in Wechsler Memory Scale performance

Calculated mean scores for older persons utilizing data from previous studies that measured Wechsler Memory Scale performance in healthy samples and compared with those of younger adults and a sample of neurologically impaired aged (N = 384). Statistical analysis indicated that in total raw scores, as well as in all subtest scores but Digit Span, there are significant differences in the performance of different age groups. The degree to which age is associated with subtest performance varies depending on the particular subtest involved. Results are discussed in terms of their clinical implications and current theories of aging and memory.     

嚼口香糖对个体学习和记忆的积极影响

目的 考察嚼口香糖对个体学习和记忆的影响.方法 以小学生为对象进行了两个集体性实验研究,实验一用修订韦氏记忆量表中的故事回忆分测验为材料,考查在学习和回忆阶段嚼或不嚼12香糖所产生的不同效应;实验二考查嚼口香糖对个体字词和算术测试的影响.结果 嚼口香糖对个体的短时记忆有积极影响,并且在学习和回忆阶段均嚼口香糖时学习成绩最佳;但当学习阶段不嚼,只在长时记忆的回忆阶段嚼口香糖时,则未发现明显的效应.在数学和字词测验的考试成绩上,两个处理组之间没有显著差异.结论 嚼口香糖对个体的短时记忆有积极的影响,对长时记忆的影响不明显.     

Alternate forms of prose passages for the assessment of auditory-verbal memory.

Logical memory (LM) is the most frequently administered subtest from the Wechsler Memory Scale; however, the lack of alternate equivalent forms for this subtest may limit its clinical utility. Six new paragraphs modelled on LM stories were developed. Stories were matched on attributes such as number of words and readability. Passage attributes for the six stories were compared with those of standard LM stories (WMS-R and WMS-III versions) to examine story equivalence. The psychometric properties of new passages were also calculated to assess task difficulty and interrater reliability. Results from these analyses suggest a high degree of overlap between the attributes of the new stories and some interesting discrepancies between passage attributes of WMS-R and WMS-III LM stories. In addition, interrater reliability of new passages was found to be excellent (at least .97), and when combined into three sets of passage-pairs, these pairs were found have equivalent difficulty. To reduce the potential for practice effects by use of alternate forms, these new logical memory-style passages may facilitate repeat assessment of auditory-verbal memory.     

龚氏记忆成套测验(儿童本)的初步编制

目的 :以当代认知心理学和认知神经科学关于人类记忆的重要研究成果为指导 ,编制一种用于记忆评估的成套测验并在儿童样本中初步试用。方法 :龚氏记忆成套测验由 10个分测验构成 ,分别涉及听觉和视觉即时记忆 ,听觉和视觉延时记忆以及工作记忆等方面的内容。研究样本取自湖南长沙市和湖南沅江市在校学生 ,总计 2 85人 (男 137人 ,女 14 8人 ) ,年龄 7～ 15岁 ,平均年龄 11.11± 2 .38岁。结果 :(1)项目分析显示 ,各分测验的平均难度指数为 0 .5 6 ,平均鉴别指数为 0 .35。 (2 )各分测验的重测相关系数为 0 .6 5～ 0 .97;除图片记忆分测验外 ,其余各分测验的分半相关系数 ,Cronbachα系数及概化系数均在 0 .80左右。 (3)探索性因素分析提取出 4个特征根大于 1的因子 ,4因子累计解释变异的 77.5 2 %。 (4)本测验与WMS -RC的理解记忆、视觉再生、背数 3个分测验相关较高 ,与WMS -RC的联想学习分测验有低至中度相关 ,与WMS -RC图片回忆分测验相关较低。 (5 )所有记忆指数及大多数分测验成绩与语文、数学成绩呈显著正相关 ,其中 ,听觉记忆成绩与语文成绩的相关高于与数学成绩的相关 ,视觉记忆成绩及工作记忆与数学成绩的相关高于与语文成绩的相关。结论 :龚氏记忆成套测验的项目难度和区分度符合心理测量学要     

Sensitivity of category cued recall to very mild dementia of the Alzheimer type.

We sought to replicate Buschke, Sliwinski, Kulansky, and Lipton's (1997) finding that the Category Cued Recall portion of the Double Memory Test can discriminate individuals with mild dementia of the Alzheimer type (DAT) and healthy older controls. We then attempted to extend this finding to those with very mild DAT. Finally, we compared these results with those of other tests that discriminate DAT from normal aging. Although we replicated Buschke et al.'s finding that the Category Cued Recall portion of the Double Memory Test discriminates effectively between mildly demented people and controls, it was little more effective in detecting very mild DAT than the WMS Logical Memory subtest nor did it add substantially to the discriminative ability of a brief battery of psychometric tests identified previously.     

Relative importance of informational units and their role in long-term recall by closed-head-injured patients and control groups.

The purpose of this study was to apply qualitative analysis to the information recalled by control Ss and closed-head-injured (CHI) patients. The Logical Memory subtest of the Wechsler Memory Scale (Wechsler, 1945) was administered to 40 CHI and 40 control Ss. Recall was tested immediately after administration, 40 min later, and 24 hr later. The analysis took into account the importance of recalled information as determined by a prior rating according to 3 levels of importance. Results suggest that CHI patients have difficulty selectively retrieving the most important information after a long delay.     

Rehearsal strategy use in Alzheimer's disease

Memory strategy usage and awareness of memory performance are both crucial for memory rehabilitation. We explored Alzheimer's patients' ability to apply and control learning strategies and also their ability to predict the effect of these strategies on subsequent performance. In a rehearsal condition, participants were explicitly asked to overtly rehearse words and were given as long as they liked at study. In a control condition, participants read the words passively at a fixed presentation rate. In all groups, recall was superior in the rehearsal condition than in the reading condition. Alzheimer's patients showed different strategy usage. Overall, people with Alzheimer's disease spend longer studying to-be-remembered words under unpaced conditions, but they do not use this time to rehearse to the same extent as controls. We hypothesize that this failure to rehearse could be based on the inability to use effortful executive mechanisms involved during study.     

Differential performances on the WRAML in children and adolescents diagnosed with epilepsy,head injury,and substance abuse

Assessment of memory in children and adolescents has been limited because of the lack of standardized instruments available. The recently released Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning (WRAML; Sheslow & Adams, 1990) was used in this exploratory study to examine memory skills in children and adolescents with conditions affecting neuropsychological functioning. Diagnostic categories included epilepsy, traumatic brain injury, and substance abuse, as well as a nonneurological comparison group with psychiatric disturbance. Results indicated that children with epilepsy scored significantly below those with substance abuse or psychiatric disorders on the Verbal Memory Index. Within‐group comparisons suggested that all clinical groups had more difficulty with tasks that purportedly measure auditory attentional skills. Children with epilepsy demonstrated greater variability in memory performances, suggesting possible problems with both attention and memory factors. The WRAML appears to be a potentially useful assessment tool in the measurement of memory processes in children, although further research is needed concerning subtest specificity.     

Performance of substance abusers with memory deficits on measures of malingering.

The effects of memory impairment on various malingering indices were assessed in a substance abusing population. Groups were formed by using scores from the Delayed Memory Index of the Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised and selecting individuals from an addictions recovery unit in the top and bottom quintiles. Quintile group differences were found for number correct on free and forced-choice recall on the 21-Item Wordlist; total time for grouped and ungrouped dots on the Rey Dot Counting procedure; and addition errors on the Memorization of 16 Items test. All differences found were in the direction of better performance by subjects with better Delayed Memory Index scores; however, all of the differences were small. With the exception of the free recall index from the 21-Item Wordlist, all subjects had scores on the malingering measures beyond the cutoffs typically used to detect malingering in clinical populations. These findings suggest that, even in memory-impaired populations, memory measures of malingering are valid.     

The East Boston Memory Test: A clinical screening measure for memory impairment in the elderly

Comparisons between the East Boston Memory Test (EBMT), a brief verbal memory measure used in epidemiological studies with dementia, selected Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised (WMS-R) subtests, and the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) were investigated with 23 geriatric patients diagnosed with dementia. Significant correlations between the EMBT and WMS-R verbal subtests were predicted and occurred (r = .42 to .64). A five minute EBMT recall correlated most highly with the WMS-R Logical Memory subtests. The sensitivity of the EBMT in detecting cognitive impairment was investigated and compared with the sensitivity of the MMSE. The EBMT correctly classified 78% of subjects, compared to a 70% correct classification rate with the MMSE. Implications of these findings and suggestions for future research directions are discussed. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Malingering on neuropsychological memory tests: Potential objective indicators

We evaluated five potential indicators of malingering on the Rey Memory Test (RMT), Hebb's Recurring Digits (HRD), the Wechsler Memory Scale Revised (WMS-R). the Complex Figure Test (CFT), and the Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT). Fifty-seven subjects were assigned randomly to either a control group or a simulated malingering group. Two indicators - discriminant functions derived from the WMS-R and from the CFT/AVLT achieved classification accuracy of 88% and 86%, respectively, without misidentifying controls as malingerers. Among the remaining indicators, there were problems with the recommended RMT cut-off, but it and the HRD show some promise. Subjects who simulated malingering did so by suppressing performance on tasks that involve recall as well as recognition memory and are relatively easy, but not obviously so.     

Comprehensive assessment of memory functioning following traumatic brain injury in children

This study examined specific memory functions in 52 children with mild‐moderate or severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) and 29 noninjured controls using the Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning (WRAML). Children's recall varied as a function of injury severity and task demands. The participants with severe brain injuries performed worse than controls on global measures of visual memory, learning, and general memory functioning, as well as on specific subtests measuring recall of contextual verbal information. Children with mild‐moderate brain injuries performed similarly to controls except for poorer performance on 2 subtests measuring sound‐symbol learning and recall of geometric designs. Results suggest that the WRAML provides clinically useful information and that specific aspects of memory processing need to be evaluated following childhood TBI.     

Taste, smell and neuropsychological performance of individuals at familial risk for Alzheimer's disease

The purpose of the study was to determine whether there are chemosensory and neuropsychological changes that predate the onset of Alzheimer's disease in individuals at enhanced risk of developing the condition. To study this question, a unique sample of individuals (n = 33) was studied who were genetically at-risk for AD by virtue of documented multigenerational evidence of the disease (so-called multiplex families). The performance of at-risk individuals was evaluated on various smell, taste, and neuropsychological measures at baseline and 18 months later. Their performance was compared to a control group (n = 32) that was matched in age, gender, education, and race. At baseline the at-risk group performed worse than the control group on the chemosensory measures of phenethyl alcohol smell detection, smell memory, and taste memory, and on a memory measure involving recall of narrative information (Logical Memory I from the Wechsler Memory Scale- Revised). Across both sessions, the at-risk group had lower smell memory scores than the control group. At-risk status was not significantly associated with APOE status. The results of this and other studies suggest that individuals who are genetically at risk for developing AD may perform more poorly on memory and smell measures compared to those not at risk. This effect may be separate from one known genetic risk factor of AD, APOE, and supports that multiple genes are likely responsible for the disease and its associated memory and other neurocognitive symptoms.