Lack of Motor Inhibition as a Marker of Learning Difficulties of Bimanual Coordination in Teenagers With Developmental Coordination Disorder

This study tested the learning of a new bimanual coordination in teenagers with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). Both groups improved accuracy of the new coordination. No difference was found on stability. But DCD teenagers exhibited an overall higher number of additional taps, suggesting a persistent lack of motor inhibition during learning. Moreover, teenagers with the lowest scores of motor abilities present the highest number of additional taps. All these results suggest that this number of additional taps (rather than traditional measures of accuracy and stability) could be a good marker of perceptual-motor learning deficit in DCD.     

发育性协调障碍儿童的运动控制缺陷

目的:从运动控制学角度探讨发育性协调障碍(Developmental Coordination Disorder,DCD)的发生机制,为其病因学研究提供理论基础.方法:以DSM-Ⅳ为诊断标准结合发育性协调障碍问卷在两所小学中进行筛查,筛选出41名DCD儿童,研究儿童闭环控制和开环控制缺陷,及运动控制缺陷和实际运动障碍程度的关系.结果:①DCD儿童的闪光临界频率低于对照组(22.7±3.1/27.5±5.9,22.3±4.1/26.0±5.9,21.0±4.8/25.5±4.7,P均＜0.01).在有、无视觉反馈协同下DCD组的右臂位移差值均高于对照组(9.8±4.0/7.9±3.5,15.7±4.3/8.5±5.1,P＜0.05或0.01).直视条件下DCD儿童描画轨迹的完成时间长于对照组(21.6±5.9/12.5±5.2,P＜0.01),错误次数多于对照组(25.3±14.2/17.6±12.4,P＜0.05).DCD儿童在连续作业和第一次、第二次间断作业中的直线目标运动错误数均高于对照组(24.2±10.0/12.2±6.1,2.6±1.0/1.7±1.2,2.0±1.2/1.4±1.0,P＜0.01或＜0.05).②相关分析结果显示,儿童手灵巧度和动/静态平衡能力障碍与黄、绿色闪光临界频率存在负相关(r=-0.33～-0.39);儿童手灵巧度、球类运动技能、动/静态平衡能力障碍分别与无视觉反馈协同下右臂位移差值、直视下描画轨迹完成时间、直线目标运动连续作业呈正相关(r=0.35～0.61);儿童手灵巧度障碍分与第一次间断作业错误数呈正相关(r=0.46).结论:DCD儿童存在时间视敏度、运动感觉、感觉-运动内化能力的不足,并导致了闭环控制运动障碍;运动计划能力的缺陷导致了开环控制运动障碍.受试儿童的运动控制能力与实际运动表现存在相关关系.DCD儿童运动控制机制的缺陷提示DCD病因可能存在于小脑.     

Components and Developmental Differences of Executive Functioning for School-Aged Children

This study examined the developmental differences, components, and underlying factor structure of executive functioning (EF) in school-aged children by utilizing subtests from Test of Everyday Attention for Children and some additional EF tests. The developmental differences identified across age groups between 7 to 14 years for a sample of 185 children support a multistage interpretation of EF development. Structural equation modeling was used to test models with three first-order EF components which included shifting, working memory/updating, and inhibition. Results indicated that the first-order full, three-factor model was the best model among all the alternative first-order and second-order models.     

Impaired Online Control in Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder Reflects Developmental Immaturity

The present study aimed to clarify whether a reduced ability to correct movements in-flight observed in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) reflects a developmental immaturity or deviance from the typical trajectory. Eighteen children with DCD (8–12 years), 18 age-matched controls, and 12 younger controls (5–7 years) completed a double-step reaching task. Compared to older controls, children with DCD and younger controls showed similarly prolonged reaching when the target unexpectedly shifted at movement onset and were equally slow to correct their reaching trajectory. These results suggest that impaired online control in DCD reflects developmental immaturity, possibly implicating the parietal-cerebellar cortices.     

Subtypes of Developmental Coordination Disorder: Research on Their Nature and Etiology

Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) are a group embracing clumsiness and developmental dyspraxia. Our study provides a better understanding of the nature of DCD and its etiology, and identifies subtypes of dyspraxia. Forty-three children with DCD (5–15 years) were enrolled on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed. [DSM-IV-TR]; American Psychiatric Association, 2000 American Psychiatric Association. 2000. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed., text rev, Washington, DC: Author. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) criteria. Extensive standardized evaluations were conducted. We distinguished from two patterns of “pure” developmental dyspraxia: ideomotor and visual-spatial/visual-constructional, and mix dyspraxia with more co-morbidities. Our study provides a better understanding of the nature of DCD, and sheds light on its etiology and brain dysfunction, so as to identify subtypes of developmental DCD/dyspraxia with specific clinical criteria.     

Motor Coordination and Executive Functions as Early Predictors of Reading and Spelling Acquisition

The role of motor coordination and executive functions in kindergarten for reading/spelling in 1st/2nd grade was examined in the light of other domain-general predictors. N = 173 children were included in the final analyses. A structural equation model with motor coordination, fluid intelligence, age and self-concept as predictors of reading/spelling fitted well. When EF were included, motor coordination and fluid intelligence were not associated with reading/spelling performance. A final model with EF, age and self-concept fitted best. Findings indicate an important role of EF for the development of reading and spelling and for the link between motor coordination and reading/spelling.     

Reaching in Children With and Without Developmental Coordination Disorder Under Normal and Perturbed Vision

The aim of this study is to describe the reaching action of children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and to investigate whether their use of visual feedback during the time course of this action differs from that of normally developing children. Fifty-two children subdivided into 2 age bands (7-8 and 9-10 years) within 2 groups (with and without DCD) participated in this experiment. They were asked to reach for a target positioned either ipsilaterally or contralaterally to the reaching hand in 2 visual conditions: a condition where vision was unrestrained (normal vision) and a condition where they wore glasses with prismatic lenses (perturbed vision). An analysis of the experimental data indicates that the trajectories followed by the DCD group were longer and more curved than those of the control group. Further, the deceleration times were longer for the DCD group than for the normally developing children. The introduction of the prismatic lenses supports the idea that the use of visual feedback by children with DCD may be different from that in children without DCD.     

Impact of Executive Functioning and Symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder on Children's Peer Relations and School Performance

This study examined the predictive relations from symptoms of Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and executive functioning (EF) to social and school functioning in 112 (62 girls) school children. High levels of teacher and parent ratings of ADHD symptoms at the ages of 8–81/2 years, and poor EF measured at the age of 81/2, were associated with poor social functioning measured by peer nominations and poor teacher ratings of school functioning at the age of 91/2. ADHD symptoms independently predicted social and school functioning, whereas EF independently predicted only school functioning. Interaction effects between ADHD and EF and between EF and gender were found: At high levels of symptoms of inattention, the poorer the EF, the greater the need for special education. At high levels of symptoms of hyperactivity/impulsivity, the poorer the EF, the higher the levels of physical aggression. Girls with poor EF were less accepted by peers than equivalent boys.     

Relations between Everyday Executive Functioning and Language in Youth with Down Syndrome and Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder

ABSTRACT

Language and executive functioning are major impairments in many neurodevelopmental disorders, but little is known about the relations between these constructs, particularly using parent-report. Thus, the current research sought to examine relations between executive function and language in two groups – Down syndrome (DS; n=41; M_age = 11.2) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD; n=91; M_age = 7.7). Results were as follows: in DS, executive function predicted pragmatic, but not structural language after covarying for age, sex, and social functioning; in ASD, executive function predicted both. Findings highlight the interrelatedness of language and executive functioning and may have implications for intervention development.     

Neurocognitive Functioning in Bipolar Disorder

Neuropsychological processes may have direct bearing on the emotional dysregulation and functional impairments characteristic of bipolar disorder. Neuropsychological deficits that have been identified in adults and children with bipolar disorder include impairments in executive functions, declarative memory, attentional processes, and possibly working memory. Structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies of adults and children with bipolar disorder also indicate abnormalities in regions thought to underlie these neuropsychological deficits, including the basal ganglia, amygdala, and dorsolateral, orbitofrontal, and anterior cingulate cortices. Study of this area is made challenging by the heterogeneity of bipolar disorder, the heterogeneity of neuropsychological deficits among groups of patients with different clinical characteristics, the lack of specificity of neurocognitive deficits for bipolar disorder, and difficulty ascertaining whether deficits are inherent in the disorder, predate the disorder, or are influenced by mood state, course, treatment, and comorbidity with other disorders. In this review, we integrate the literature on neuropsychological functioning and neuroimaging in both children and adults with bipolar disorder, propose a nascent integrative model of cognitive function in bipolar disorder, and make suggestions for future studies and model development.     

Temporal variability in continuous versus discontinuous drawing for children with Developmental Coordination Disorder

Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) are reported to have high temporal variability in tasks requiring precise timing. The current study examined whether this timing deficit was due to the cerebellar 'explicit timing' process in the discontinuous, but not the continuous movement. Ten children with DCD and 31 typically developing children performed continuous, discontinuous circle and line drawing tasks. Results showed that both children with DCD and their age-matched controls had higher temporal variability in the discontinuous than that in the continuous movements. Individual comparisons between each child with DCD and the performance of typically developing children revealed that 2 out of 10 children with DCD showed limited timing deficit in both types of discontinuous drawing (lines and circles). Additionally, three different children with DCD had timing problems with only discontinuous line drawing. Thus, the possibility of a compromised cerebellar function may exist in a subgroup of children with DCD. This work raises a critical issue with respect to the functional heterogeneity of this population and emphasizes the importance of an individualized analysis in this movement disorder.     

小学儿童体适能、执行功能与学业成绩三者的关系

目的:探讨小学儿童体适能、执行功能与学业成绩的关系模型。方法:采用立定跳远、仰卧起坐、10×5米往返跑、伦敦塔任务和连线任务对248名小学儿童进行测查,并收集期中和期末成绩。结果:1除10×5往返跑与语文成绩、伦敦塔任务,仰卧起坐与语文成绩、英语成绩,伦敦塔任务与立定跳远成绩相关不显著外(P0.05),其余各变量间均呈不同程度的显著相关(P0.05);2结构方程模型结果显示,执行功能在体适能与小学儿童学业成绩关系间起着完全中介作用。结论:体适能和执行功能对小学儿童学业成绩有重要影响。执行功能在体适能对小学儿童学业成绩的影响中起完全中介作用。     

强迫性障碍患者的执行功能研究

目的:探讨影响强迫性障碍患者执行功能的因素。方法:纳入强迫性障碍患者60例,采用威斯康星卡片、连线测验、河内塔测验、Stroop测验,言语流畅性测验等神经心理学测验评定执行功能。同时使用社会功能缺陷量表评定社会功能水平,耶鲁布朗量表评定疾病严重程度,汉米尔顿量焦虑抑郁量表评定合并的焦虑抑郁程度。结果:强迫怀疑的出现与模式转换的威斯康星卡片分类测验的概念认知下降相关(r=-0.388,P<0.01),强迫检查的出现与计划的河内塔测验开始时间长短成正比(r=0.295,P<0.05),强迫仪式动作的出现与抑制的Stroop测验的时间延长和错误数目增加成正比(r=0.278、0.300,P<0.05),强迫询问与流利性的说出数目多少成负相关(r=-0.261,P<0.05)。合并的焦虑抑郁情绪与模式转换的威斯康星卡片分类测验和连线测验的操作时间成正比,与计划的河内塔测验总时间成正比(r=0.297,0.359,P<0.05)。结论:不同强迫症状与执行功能的不同层面相关,合并的焦虑抑郁情绪程度与模式转换、计划能力的下降有关。     

Interpersonal Functioning in Pediatric Bipolar Disorder

[Clin Psychol Sci Prac 18: 342–356, 2011] This article reviews studies of interpersonal functioning, social cognition, and life stress in children and adolescents with bipolar disorder (BD). Peer and family relationships of youth with BD are impaired in comparison to healthy controls and youth with attention‐deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Social‐cognitive deficits, such as impaired facial affect recognition, may underlie these interpersonal difficulties. Affect among youth with BD is particularly dysregulated in interpersonal situations and is often characterized by elevated anger and frustration. Preliminary evidence suggests that life stress is associated with course. Further research in this area must consider the role of comorbidity and family environment in determining psychosocial outcomes. Studies should aim to incorporate naturalistic and developmentally appropriate measures of social functioning and examine the impact of psychosocial interventions in modifying social dysfunction.     

Time Reproduction Deficits at Young Adult Follow-Up in Childhood ADHD: The Role of Persistence of Disorder and Executive Functioning

No studies have examined if time reproduction deficits exist in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) by adulthood. We followed 131 ADHD and 71 community control (CC) cases for 20+ years to young adulthood at which time they were given a time reproduction task. The ADHD group made smaller time reproductions and showed greater variability of errors at the longer durations compared to CC cases, whether ADHD was still present or not at follow-up. Nonverbal working memory and design fluency tests were related to timing errors while anxiety and depression were not. Childhood ADHD is associated with timing deficits at adult follow-up.     

Parental Mental Disorder and Children's Functioning: Silence and Communication,Stigma and Resilience

In this article I argue that narrative accounts of the effects of parental mental disorder (particularly mood disturbance) on children's functioning may provide unprecedented windows on crucial issues of silence, stigmatization, diagnosis, etiology, and treatment, which can mutually inform empirical research efforts. In publishing a book-length account of the life of my father, The Years of Silence are Past (Hinshaw, 2002b), I departed from my usual academic writings and gave voice to a complex and troubling life history, marked by misdiagnosed bipolar disorder and misguided treatment that lasted 40 years. Herein, I focus on the ramifications of this narrative for scientific and clinical efforts in the field, including the still-prevalent stigmatization and silence surrounding mental disorder, the great need for accurate diagnosis and responsive treatment, the complex and transactional web of biological and environmental risk factors that exist for mental disturbance, the blending of inner experience with social realities regarding symptom content, the resilience and strength that can accompany mental disorder, and the ways in which parents with mental disturbance can promote active communication with their offspring. Narrative accounts may be particularly important in reducing silence and in framing the next generation of empirical research questions; blending qualitative and quantitative methods may help address crucial goals related to child functioning in the presence of parental mental disorder.     

强迫症的认知执行功能研究

本文着重回顾了强迫症患者在注意、记忆、模式转换和组织策略等方面的认知执行功能的表现，提出各研究之间结果所存在的分歧，主要与测验的选用，患者状态的控制（用药、病程）有关。脑影像学的结果指出强迫症患者的认知执行功能障碍很可能与额叶-纹状体回路功能失调有关。建议对强迫症患者执行功能的研究尽量选用测查内容更为细化的测验。     

Executive Functioning as a Predictor of Children's Mathematics Ability: Inhibition, Switching, and Working Memory

Children's mathematical skills were considered in relation to executive functions. Using multiple measures-including the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST), dual-task performance, Stroop task, and counting span-it was found that mathematical ability was significantly correlated with all measures of executive functioning, with the exception of dual-task performance. Furthermore, regression analyses revealed that each executive function measure predicted unique variance in mathematics ability. These results are discussed in terms of a central executive with diverse functions (Shallice & Burgess, 1996) and with recent evidence from Miyake, et al. (2000) showing the unity and diversity among executive functions. It is proposed that the particular difficulties for children of lower mathematical ability are lack of inhibition and poor working memory, which result in problems with switching and evaluation of new strategies for dealing with a particular task. The practical and theoretical implications of these results are discussed, along with suggestions for task changes and longitudinal studies that would clarify theoretical and developmental issues related to executive functioning.     

The use of predictive information is impaired in the actions of children and young adults with Developmental Coordination Disorder

The need for a movement response may often be preceded by some advance information regarding direction or extent. We examined the ability of individuals with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) to organise a movement in response to advance information. Pre-cues were presented and varied in the extent to which they indicated the response target. Both eye movement latencies and hand movements were measured. In the absence of pre-cues, individuals with DCD were as fast in initial hand movements as the typically developing (TD) participants, but were less efficient at correcting initial directional errors. A major difference was seen in the degree to which each group could use advance pre-cue information. TD participants were able to use pre-cue information to refine their actions. For the individuals with DCD this was only effective if there was no ambiguity in the advance cue and they had particular difficulty in using predictive motion cues. There were no differences in the speed of gaze responses which excluded an explanation relating to the dynamic allocation of attention. Individuals with DCD continued to rely on the slower strategy of fixating the target prior to initiating a hand movement, rather than using advance information to set initial movement parameters.