Components of Executive Function in Typically Developing and Head-Injured Children

To identify the key components of executive functions (EFs) in children following traumatic brain injury (TBI), data from a series of EF tests administered to 286 pediatric TBI patients at least 3 years postinjury were subjected to an exploratory factor analysis. A 5-factor model included discourse, EFs (e.g., problem solving, planning), processing speed (e.g., coding), declarative memory, and motor speed. Confirmatory factor analysis based on data obtained from 265 pediatric TBI patients at 3 months postinjury disclosed that the 5-factor model provided a good fit to the data. A second exploratory analysis of the 3-month postinjury data disclosed a 4-factor model in which processing speed and motor speed measures loaded on a common factor. Severity of TBI and age at test had significant effects on all factors in both the 5- and 4-factor models. Adaptive functioning, as measured by the Vineland Adaptive Behavioral Scale-Revised, was moderately related to factor scores at 3 years or longer postinjury, but weakly related to factor scores obtained at 3 months postinjury. The factor scores could be used in clinical trials to facilitate data reduction and appear to have validity as indicators of TBI outcome.     

Neural Correlates of Emotion Processing in Typically Developing Children and Children of Diabetic Mothers

To examine the neurocognitive sequelae of children born to diabetic mothers (CDMs), event-related potentials (ERPs) in response to three facial expressions (happy, fear, anger) were collected from 42 children (18 CDMs, 24 controls), aged 36 and/or 48 months. A linear mixed models approach was used to model individual variation in amplitude and latency. As infants, CDMs in the present study displayed subtle impairments in attention and memory processing, including face recognition, as indexed by ERPs. Findings indicate that these same children, now ages 3–4 years, continue to display ERP patterns that differ from controls in amplitude, latency, and hemispheric asymmetry.     

Effects of Gender and Age on Motor Exam in Typically Developing Children

Few studies have contrasted performance of typically developing boys and girls on standardized motor assessment. In the present study, developmental status of the motor system was assessed in 144 typically developing children (72 boys, 72 girls, ages 7–14), using the Physical and Neurological Examination for Subtle Signs (PANESS, Denckla, 1985). Four summary variables were examined: (1) Gaits and Stations, (2) Overflow, (3) Dysrythmia, and (4) Timed Movements. For most variables, gender differences were not significant; however significant gender effects were observed for some subtle signs (involuntary movements), gaits and stations, and timed patterned movements. In all instances, girls showed fewer subtle signs and were faster and more proficient than boys. Significant age-related changes were observed for some subtle signs (dysrythmia and overflow), and for timed movements. In contrast, by age 7, many of the skills assessed by the PANESS have reached “adult” level in typically developing children. Motor development appears to follow a different developmental course in girls than in boys; separate gender and age norms should be used in clinical assessment of motor function in children.     

Increased Sleep Disturbances in Thai Children With Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Compared With Typically Developing Children

This study compares sleep disturbances in Thai children aged 5–12 years with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and typically developing children using the Children’s Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ)–Thai version. Fifty-five children with ADHD and 110 typically developing children were enrolled. Their parents completed the CSHQ, the ADHD rating scales, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Children with ADHD had significantly higher scores in all subscales of the CSHQ compared to controls. Among children with ADHD, children with higher SDQ scores (> 15) appeared to have more sleep disturbances than those with relatively lower SDQ scores. Moreover, fewer sleep-related behavioral problems were observed in the medication treated group, which is particularly new to the field and for some perhaps not unexpected clinically.     

注意缺陷多动障碍儿童感觉统合与执行功能的相关分析

目的：探讨注意缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)儿童感觉统合与执行功能之间的关系。方法：对282例符合美国精神障碍诊断与统计手册第4版(DSM-Ⅳ)ADHD诊断标准的门诊儿童，进行感觉统合功能和执行功能评定，对结果进行相关性分析。结果：感觉统合功能量表中，大肌肉及平衡能力的等级评分与Stroop测验的A反应时、总反应时呈正相关，与韦氏记忆中倒背数字得分呈负相关；触觉过度防御及情绪不稳的等级评分与Stroop测验的C错误数和色干扰呈负相关；本体感不佳、身体协调不良的等级评分与Stroop测验的C错误数和总错误数呈负相关；学习能力发展不足或协调不良的等级评分与Stroop测验的D反应时、总反应时、D错误数、总错误数以及瑞文标准推理测验的标准等级分呈正相关；大年龄的特殊问题的等级评分与Stroop测验的C错误数、D错误数、总错误数呈负相关。结论：ADHD儿童感觉统合功能，尤其是大肌肉和平衡能力、学习能力发展不足或协调不良与执行功能有关；ADHD儿童的感统失调，尤其是前庭网状结构功能失调引起的注意力损害,多动和冲动,与患儿的行功能缺陷有密切的联系．     

Prevalence of Neurological Soft Signs and Their Neuropsychological Correlates in Typically Developing Chinese Children and Chinese Children With ADHD

This study examined prevalence of soft signs in 214 typically developing Chinese children and investigated whether soft signs are associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in this population. Chinese children with ADHD (N = 54) scored significantly higher than age-matched controls on all three soft signs subscales and motor coordination correlated significantly with Stroop interference. Logistic regression supported the utility of the soft sign scales in discriminating children with ADHD and controls. Children with ADHD had a significant excess of soft signs, which may be a useful marker of developmental disruption in this clinical condition.     

Components and Developmental Differences of Executive Functioning for School-Aged Children

This study examined the developmental differences, components, and underlying factor structure of executive functioning (EF) in school-aged children by utilizing subtests from Test of Everyday Attention for Children and some additional EF tests. The developmental differences identified across age groups between 7 to 14 years for a sample of 185 children support a multistage interpretation of EF development. Structural equation modeling was used to test models with three first-order EF components which included shifting, working memory/updating, and inhibition. Results indicated that the first-order full, three-factor model was the best model among all the alternative first-order and second-order models.     

Developmental Trajectories of Attention in Typically Developing Chinese Children: A Four-Wave Longitudinal Study

We conducted a 4-year longitudinal study to investigate trajectories of attention in a sample of 145 Chinese children. The Test of Everyday Attention was administered and latent growth modeling was used to capture developmental trajectories. We found that children’s selective attention showed a linear increase, whereas attentional control and sustained attention increased rapidly then slowed down over 4 years. There was no significant correlation between the slopes of growth model for any subsystems. Girls showed higher initial levels of selective attention than boys, but no difference in growth rate. These findings support different developmental patterns in the attention network systems.     

Gray Matter Structure and Morphosyntax Within a Spoken Narrative in Typically Developing Children and Children With High Functioning Autism

This study examined the relationship between magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)–based measures of gray matter structure and morphosyntax production in a spoken narrative in 17 typical children (TD) and 11 children with high functioning autism (HFA) between 6 and 13 years of age. In the TD group, cortical structure was related to narrative performance in the left inferior frontal gyrus (Broca's area), the right middle frontal sulcus, and the right inferior temporal sulcus. No associations were found in children with HFA. These findings suggest a systematic coupling between brain structure and spontaneous language in TD children and a disruption of these relationships in children with HFA.     

Working Memory Performance in Typically Developing Children and Adolescents: Behavioral Evidence of Protracted Frontal Lobe Development

Post-mortem histological and in vivo neuroimaging findings both reveal frontal lobe development that extends beyond the adolescent years. Few studies have examined whether this protracted neurodevelopment coincides with improvements in adolescent performance on putative frontal lobe tasks. An instrumental function supported by the frontal lobes is working memory, the ability to maintain and manipulate information “online.” This study investigated the performance of typically developing children and adolescents on a battery of working memory tasks. Findings revealed an improvement in performance on most working memory tasks across the adolescent years. In contrast, no improvement was observed on tasks largely supported by more posterior neural substrates. Current findings indicate a similar unfolding of the executive aspects of verbal working memory as previously demonstrated with spatial working memory. Factor analysis revealed a grouping of working memory tasks based largely on task demands, irrespective of working memory domain, adding support for process-specific models of prefrontal organization. Important implications for typical and atypical frontal lobe development are discussed.     

Executive Function in Preschool Children: Examination Through Everyday Behavior

Clinical assessment of executive function in preschool-age children is challenging given limited availability of standardized tasks and preschoolers' variable ability to participate in lengthy formal evaluation procedures. Given the benefits of ecological validity of measuring behavior by rating scales, the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (Gioia, Isquith, Guy, & Kenworthy, 2000) was modified for use with children ages 2 through 5 years to assess executive functions in an everyday context. The scale development process, based on samples of 460 parents and 302 teachers, yielded a single 63-item measure with 5 related, but nonoverlapping, scales, with good internal consistency and temporal stability. Exploratory factor analyses identified 3 consistent factors: Emergent Metacognition, Flexibility, and Inhibitory Self-Control across parent and teacher samples. In a second study with a mixed sample of preschool children with various developmental disorders, parents and teachers rated these preschool children as having greater executive difficulties in most domains than matched controls. Such rating-scale methodology may be a useful complementary tool by which to reliably assess executive functions in preschool children via everyday behaviors in the natural environment.     

The N170 to Angry Faces Predicts Anxiety in Typically Developing Children Over a Two-Year Period

Enhanced threat processing has been associated with elevated anxiety in adults, but less is known about how threat processing influences the developmental trajectory of anxiety in children. We used the N170 to measure threat (angry faces) processing in relation to child anxiety over a 2-year period. Participants were 27 typically developing 5-to-7-year-olds (13 females). Higher anxiety when children were aged 5 to 7 was associated with higher anxiety 2 years later, but only for children showing larger N170 amplitudes to angry versus happy faces. The N170 captures individual differences in threat processing that may characterize children at enhanced risk for anxiety.     

Executive Function Profile of Children With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

We explored the neuropsychological profile for executive functions of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) to assess whether problems associated with the two most cited relevant processes-inhibition and attentional problems-were the core of any executive function difficulty. A battery of executive function tests was administered to 31 children with a clinical diagnosis of ADHD and to 33 normal control participants, all aged between 7 and 12. The executive function battery encompassed a number of tasks, selected because each had multiple measures: a sustained attention reaction time task, a related vigilance task, an adaptation of the Hayling Sentence Completion Test, an adaptation of the Brixton Spatial Rule Attainment Test, a Letter Fluency task, a number Stroop task, and an "n-back" working memory task. The overall pattern of the results fit well with those obtained in previous studies as far as abnormalities of the ADHD group in the domain of inhibitory processes, attentional functions, and executive functions. The children with ADHD, although performing well on baseline tasks, performed more poorly than the controls on all the experimental tasks with one borderline exception: Letter Fluency, where the children with ADHD showed a very different pattern than most adult frontal lobe subgroups. However, there was no specific impairment on measures of inhibitory processes. In addition, strategy generation and use were severely affected in the ADHD group. Particular findings fitted well with disorders of a high-level effort system and of a monitoring system.     

Development of Executive Function and Attention in Preterm Children: A Systematic Review

We report on a systematic review of studies of executive function and attention in preterm children. Using meta-analysis, we confirm this is an area of weakness for preterm children, and show that the extent of difficulties is influenced by gestational age (GA), age at test, and skill under investigation. Effect size for selective and sustained attention and inhibition is related to GA. For studies with mean GA ≥ 26 weeks, selective attention skills catch up with age, phonemic fluency skills are increasingly delayed, and ongoing deviance is shown for shifting skills (when assessed with specific measures). Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

不同亚型学习障碍儿童的执行功能特点

目的:探讨不同亚型学习障碍儿童的执行功能特点。方法:采用汉诺塔测验、Stroop字色干扰测验、威斯康星卡片分类测验,对163对不同亚型学习障碍儿童和正常对照组儿童的执行功能进行比较。结果:①汉诺塔测验中,RD组移动3个圆盘时间多于对照组;RD/MD组移动3个圆盘时间和次数均多于对照组。②Stroop字色干扰测验中,MD组只有3项指标与对照组具有统计学差异;RD组和RD/MD组的各项指标均与对照组有统计学差异,且RD/MD组的4项指标均高于MD组。③威斯康星卡片分类测验中,不同亚型LD儿童的总应答数、总正确率、非持续性错误率等多个指标均与对照组具有统计学差异;RD/MD组完成作业时间多于MD组。结论:各种亚型LD儿童均存在不同程度的执行功能缺陷,混合型学习障碍儿童的执行功能受损最为严重。     

音乐训练对改善儿童前额叶执行功能的作用

目的通过研究音乐训练改善儿童认知控制能力来探讨音乐训练对大脑前额叶执行功能的可塑性。方法采用GO/NOGO的实验范式,记录16名受过3年以上音乐训练儿童和16名对照组儿童的脑电信号,并对N2、P3波幅进行统计分析。结果经多因素重复测量方差显示,音乐训练组NOGO任务的N2波幅和对照组没有显著差异;而NOGO任务的P3波幅统计结果发现,位置与组别存在交互作用(P<0.05),表现在FZ、FCZ位置上音乐训练组的P3波幅显著高于对照组(P<0.05)。结论尽管音乐训练不能提高对冲突的监测能力,但是能够显著改进反应抑制能力,继而改善儿童前额叶执行功能。     

高功能孤独症和Asperger综合征儿童的执行功能

目的探讨高功能孤独症(HFA)和Asperger综合征(AS)儿童在执行功能方面的认知神经心理特征。方法应用威斯康星卡片分类测验(WCST)分别对17例HFA儿童、23例AS儿童和20例正常健康儿童进行测试。结果HFA组儿童完成分类数(Cc)、正确应答数(Rc)、概念化水平百分比(Rf%)均明显较正常儿童组低，AS组Cc、Rc也明显低于正常儿童组，但AS组Cc明显高于HFA组；HFA组持续性应答数(Rp)和持续性错误数(Rpe)明显较正常儿童组高，AS组持续性应答数和持续性错误数与正常儿童组无显著性差异。结论HFA组与AS儿童存在不同程度的执行功能障碍。     

Performance and Ratings Based Measures of Executive Function in School-Aged Children with Down Syndrome

We examined performance-based laboratory tasks and ratings-based assessments of executive function (EF) in school-aged children with Down syndrome and mental-age matched peers along with adaptive functioning. Methods. A battery of assessments including EF laboratory tasks was collected. Results. The DS group performed both working memory/inhibition and planning laboratory tasks with significant challenges. Moderate correlations were evident only between some laboratory tasks and ratings-based EF domains. However, ratings-based EF better predicted adaptive function than performance on an EF laboratory-based task. Conclusions. Findings underscore the need to address early and targeted EF intervention in children with DS.     

注意缺陷多动障碍儿童执行功能特征

目的:探讨注意缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)儿童执行功能的特征。方法:采用Stroop效应、视觉和听觉Go/No-Go反应、倒背数字、延缓期的空间位置记忆广度、伦敦塔任务和连线测验分别测试40例ADHD儿童和25例正常对照组儿童的反应抑制、语音工作记忆、视空间工作记忆、计划能力和定势转移能力。结果:1.ADHD儿童完成字义与字色相矛盾的字色命名时间较正常对照组儿童明显延长(P﹤0.05)。2.ADHD儿童完成视觉和听觉的Go/No-Go反应所犯错误数均较正常对照组儿童明显增多(P﹤0.01)。3.ADHD儿童倒背数字分数和延缓期的空间位置记忆广度均较正常对照组儿童明显低(P﹤0.01)。4.ADHD儿童完成两步、四步和五步伦敦塔任务的时间均较正常对照组儿童明显延长、犯错误数明显增多(P﹤0.05);而完成四步、五步伦敦塔任务的最初计划时间则较正常对照组儿童明显缩短(P﹤0.01)。5.ADHD儿童完成连线测验甲式的时间和犯错误数与正常对照组儿童无显著性差异(P﹥0.05),而完成乙式所需时间则较正常对照组儿童明显延长、犯错误数较正常对照组儿童明显增多(P﹤0.05)。结论:ADHD儿童存在反应抑制、语音工作记忆、视空间工作记忆、计划能力和定势转移能力等多项执行功能的缺陷。