Expandable Polyester Silicon-Covered Stent for Malignant Esophageal Structures before Neoadjuvant Chemoradiation: A Pilot Study

Patients with resectable esophageal cancer often require placement of a surgical jejunostomy tube prior to receiving chemoradiation so as to maintain adequate nutrition due to their inability to swallow and eat. This study reports a single institutional experience with the Polyflex self-expanding silicone stent (Rüsch; Kernen. Germany) in patients with malignant stenosis receiving chemoradiation prior to esophagectomy. This was a retrospective, nonrandomized study of 6 patients who underwent Polyflex esophageal stent placement across a malignant stricture prior to receiving neoadjuvant chemoradiation. The study assessed procedural success, restoration of oral nutrition, migration, and removal of the Polyflex stent. The outcomes measured were the efficacy of treatment, stent-related complications, and changes in the nutritional status of the patient after stent placement. Stent placement was successful in 5 of 6 patients (83%). Restoration of oral nutrition after stent placement occurred in 5 of 5 patients (100%). Migration of the stent into the stomach occurred in 3 patients (60%) without occurrence of gastric outlet obstruction; there was no proximal migration. Stents were successfully removed endoscopically or at the time of esophagectomy. This early experience suggests that the removable silicone Polyflex stent is an effective alternative to a surgical jejunostomy tube for the management of malignant esophageal stenosis in patients for whom neoadjuvant chemoradiation is planned prior to esophagectomy.     

Comparison of direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy and PEG with jejunal extension

BACKGROUND: Jejunostomy tubes can be placed endoscopically by means of percutaneous gastrostomy with jejunal extension (PEG-J) or by direct percutaneous jejunostomy. These 2 techniques were retrospectively compared in patients requiring long-term jejunal feeding. METHOD: An endoscopy database was used to identify all patients who underwent endoscopic jejunal feeding tube placement from January 1996 to May 2001. Patients with a history of upper GI surgery were excluded. There were 56 patients with a direct percutaneous jejunostomy and 49 with a percutaneous gastrostomy with jejunal extension. Patients in the direct percutaneous jejunostomy group received a 20F direct jejunostomy tube; a 20F PEG tube with a 9F jejunal extension was used in the percutaneous gastrostomy with jejunal extension group. Medical records for the period of 6 months after establishment of jejunal access were reviewed. Complications and need for further endoscopic intervention within this time frame were recorded. The duration of feeding tube patency (number of days from established jejunal access to first endoscopic reintervention) was compared for both groups. RESULTS: Feeding tube patency was significantly longer in patients who had a direct percutaneous jejunostomy compared with those with a percutaneous gastrostomy with jejunal extension. Within the 6-month period, 5 patients with a direct percutaneous jejunostomy required endoscopic reintervention for tube dysfunction compared with 19 patients who had a percutaneous gastrostomy with jejunal extension (p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: For patients who require long-term jejunal feeding, a direct percutaneous jejunostomy with a 20F tube provides more stable jejunal access compared with a percutaneous gastrostomy with jejunal extension with a 9F extension and has a lower associated rate of endoscopic reintervention.     

Mini-laparoscopically guided percutaneous gastrostomy and jejunostomy

BACKGROUND: Percutaneous endoscopic tube placement can be problematic under certain circumstances: absence of transillumination of the abdominal wall, percutaneous jejunostomy in patients with a PEG tube and recurrent aspiration, enteral feeding access after gastrectomy, and obstruction of the upper GI tract. As an alternative in these problematic situations, a technique was developed for placing feeding tubes under visual control by using mini-laparoscopy. METHODS: Placement of a feeding tube with mini-laparoscopy with the patient under conscious sedation was considered for 17 patients in whom standard PEG placement was impossible. Techniques used were the following: combined mini-laparoscopy/endoscopy for placement of a percutaneous gastrostomy or jejunostomy, and mini-laparoscopic-guided direct tube placement in cases of obstruction of the upper GI tract. OBSERVATIONS: In 13 patients, mini-laparoscopic-assisted tube placement was successful. In 4 patients, adhesions or peritoneal carcinomatosis prevented laparoscopic visualization of the stomach or small bowel. The combined mini-laparoscopic/endoscopic approach allowed a successful insertion of gastric tubes in 6 patients and jejunal tubes in 4 patients. Direct insertion of a percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy tube without enteroscopy was feasible in all 3 patients with obstruction of the upper GI tract. No complication occurred. CONCLUSIONS: Mini-laparoscopy-assisted tube placement is a simple and safe alternative when endoscopic percutaneous tube placement is problematic or not feasible.     

Percutaneous sonographic gastrostomy: method, indications, and problems

Objectives: This study evaluated the application of ultrasound (US) guidance in the percutaneous placement of gastric feeding tubes in patients in whom endoscopic placement of a nutrition tube is not possible.
Methods: Thirty-eight patients with upper gastrointestinal obstruction were entered in a prospective study with US-guided nutrition tube application. Feasibility of placement, side effects, and nutritional states were monitored for a mean follow-up of 4 months.
Results: Ultrasound allowed rapid puncture after filling of the stomach with water through a nasal tube in 34/38 cases. In four cases a total upper gastrointestinal obstruction required an initial stomach insufflation through a direct puncture. Puncture-related major complications were not observed. Minor complications during the observation time were one late dislocation, five cases with broken material after about 6 months (four could be changed by using the Seldinger technique), and two minor local infections. The nutrition through feeding tubes stabilized body weight and body composition parameters.
Conclusion: The percutaneous sonographic gastrostomy (PSG) is a safe and minimally invasive procedure for enteral nutrition in all cases with upper gastrointestinal obstruction when endoscopic placement of a feeding tube is not possible. Percutaneous sonographic gastrostomy may help to stabilize the nutritional parameters and general condition in patients with malignant diseases.     

Endoscopic approaches to enteral nutritional support

Enteral is preferred to parenteral nutritional support for acute and chronic diseases because it is more physiological and associated with fewer infection complications. Nasal tube feedings are generally used for 30 days or less and percutaneous access for the longer-term. Feeding by naso-gastric tubes is appropriate for most critically ill patients. However, trans-pyloric feeding is indicated for those with regurgitation and aspiration of gastric feeds. Deep naso-jejunal tube feeding is appropriate for patients with severe acute pancreatitis. There are several methods for endoscopic placement of naso-enteric tubes. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy is used for most persons requiring long-term support. Long-term jejunal feeding is most often used for persons with chronic aspiration of gastric feeds, chronic pancreatitis intolerant to eating, or persons in need of concomitant gastric decompression. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy with a jejunal tube extension is fraught with tube dysfunction and dislocation. Direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy tubes may be more robust, but are less commonly performed.     

Can percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy prevent gastroesophageal reflux in patients with preexisting esophagitis?

OBJECTIVE: Percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy has been used for preventing pulmonary aspiration arising from gastric contents by concomitant jejunal feeding and gastric decompression in susceptible patients. Our objective was to evaluate gastroesophageal reflux in patients with percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy tube feeding. METHODS: Eight cerebrovascular accident patients with percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy tube placement caused by reflux esophagitis with hematemesis, food regurgitation or vomiting, and/or recurrent aspiration pneumonia were tested for gastroesophageal reflux using 24-h esophageal pH monitoring during continuous jejunal liquid meal or saline infusion with concomitant gastric decompression. Twenty-four hour pH monitoring was also performed during intragastric feeding on a different day. RESULTS: During the liquid meal feeding period, percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy feeding reduced esophageal acid exposure 46% [12.9% (4.9-28.2%) versus 24.0% (19.0-40.6%), p = 0.01], compared to intragastric feeding. However, in the period of the jejunal tube infusion, esophageal acid exposure was significantly lower during saline infusion than during meal infusion [3.2 (0.0%-10.8%) versus 12.9% (4.9-28.2%), p = 0.008]. CONCLUSION: Percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy feeding reduced but did not eliminate gastroesophageal reflux, compared to intragastric feeding in patients with severe gastroesophageal reflux. However, gastroesophageal reflux during percutaneous jejunal feeding was associated with meal infusion. This might, in part, explain the failure of percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy tube placement to prevent pulmonary aspiration.     

Direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy: a case series in pediatric patients.

BACKGROUND: Direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy (DPEJ) is a well-known approach to deliver postpyloric enteral nutrition support to individuals who cannot tolerate gastric feeding. DPEJ addresses many of the shortcomings of jejunal feeding tubes placed through percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy tubes. The safety and efficacy of DPEJ in adults has been previously reported. There are no reports on the use of DPEJ in pediatric patients. OBJECTIVE: Our purpose was to report on 5 pediatric patients who underwent DPEJ placement between January 2000 and January 2003 over the available follow-up periods. DESIGN: Retrospective case series. SETTING: University of Utah Health Sciences Center and the Medical University of South Carolina. PATIENTS: Five patients, age range 4 to 17 years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Rate of successful tube placement, major and minor complications, and outcomes including weight gain and recurrent aspiration after DPEJ placement. RESULTS: All 5 attempted DPEJs were placed successfully with 2 minor complications of peristomal leakage and peristomal skin infection. One DPEJ was replaced 2 years after placement because of fungal degradation. The mean weight gain among all patients was 10.3 kg in a mean of 22.6 months. LIMITATIONS: Retrospective, small series. CONCLUSIONS: DPEJ placement appears to be a safe and effective approach to enteral nutritional support in pediatric patients requiring long-term access to the jejunum. No major complications occurred and all patients gained weight after tube placement.     

Can we predict the need for nutritional support following pancreatoduodenectomy?

BackgroundThe practice of routine placement of a tube jejunostomy at the time of pancreatoduodenectomy has given way to a more selective approach. However, the indications of establishing enteral access at the time of surgery remain poorly defined. This study aimed to assess the preoperative and intraoperative factors associated with the need for nutritional support after pancreatoduodenectomy, to guide decision-making for the establishment of intraoperative feeding access.MethodsRetrospective study, analyzing the data of 562 consecutive patients, who underwent pancreatoduodenectomy between March 2013 to December 2020. Univariate and multiple logistic regression analysis was carried out to ascertain the factors associated with the initiation of and need for nutritional support for more than 7 days postop. The utility of tube jejunostomy was studied in patients in whom it was performed.ResultsOf 562 patients, 105 (18.7%) needed nutritional support. A tube jejunostomy was performed in 46 (8.2%) patients, parenteral nutrition was used in 83 (14.8%), and nasojejunal tube placed in 28 (4.9%) patients. On logistic regression analysis, age, serum albumin <3.0 gm/dl and operative blood loss were independently associated with the initiation of supportive nutrition, while preoperative gastric outlet obstruction (OR 3.105, 95% CI1.201–8.032, p = 0.019) and serum albumin <3.0 gm/dl (OR 2.669, 95% CI 1.131–6.300, p = 0.025) were associated with the need for prolonged nutritional support. The maximal benefit of tube jejunostomy was in patients with mental health disorders (83.3%).ConclusionTube jejunostomy for nutritional support after pancreatoduodenectomy can be considered in patients with preoperative gastric outlet obstruction, serum albumin <3.0 gm/dl and mental health disorders.     

Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy does not prolong survival in patients with dementia

BACKGROUND: Artificial feeding by a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) tube in patients with dementia has increased since the introduction of the endoscopic method of tube placement. Few studies have documented survival benefit from this intervention. This report reviews our experience with PEG tube placement for feeding patients with dementia. METHODS: All consultations for PEG tube placement were evaluated by a certified nutrition support nurse (L.M.M.) in consultation with a member of the gastroenterology physician staff (T.O.L.) for 24 months. Evaluation included the attainment of a brief medical history, a physical examination, and a review of comorbid conditions, laboratory variables for nutrition status, and bleeding risk. Interviews with patients or surrogates were conducted, including an explanation of the risks and benefits of PEG tube placement. A Kaplan-Meier survival curve was used to compare the median survival between patients with dementia who received a PEG tube and patients with dementia in whom PEG tube placement was refused. RESULTS: We received 41 consultations for PEG tube placement in patients with dementia. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy was performed in 23 patients; 18 patients met the medical criteria for PEG tube placement, but surrogates refused placement. The median survival for the 23 patients who underwent PEG was 59 days; the median survival for the 18 patients who did not undergo PEG was 60 days. CONCLUSION: There seems to be no survival benefit in patients with dementia who receive artificial feeding by a PEG tube.     

Endoscopic gastrostomy in patients with complicated heart diseases]

Complicated cardiologic patients with brain ischemia and heart failure need long term enteral nutrition. Long term nasoenteral tube feeding may cause complications that could be avoided with percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy. The aim of this study was to evaluate the indications for percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy and its main complications. Twelve patients were submitted to percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (eight male) with main age of 62.42 +/- 22.10 years old. Brain ischemia was the main indication of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy and occurred after 35.58 +/- 26.79 days, after initiated enteral nutrition. There were no complications during procedure. On late post operatory period there were local infection in one cases, treated with local care. In conclusion, percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy is a secure technique with low incidence of complications and its indication should be earlier.     

Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy:Indications,technique,complications and management

Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy(PEG)is the preferred route of feeding and nutritional support in patients with a functional gastrointestinal system who require long-term enteral nutrition.Besides its wellknown advantages over parenteral nutrition,PEG offers superior access to the gastrointestinal system over surgical methods.Considering that nowadays PEG tube placement is one of the most common endoscopic procedures performed worldwide,knowing its indications and contraindications is of paramount importance in current medicine.PEG tubes are sometimes placed inappropriately in patients unable to tolerate adequate oral intake because of incorrect and unrealistic understanding of their indications and what they can accomplish.Broadly,the two main indications of PEG tube placement are enteral feeding and stomach decompression.On the other hand,distal enteral obstruction,severe uncorrectable coagulopathy and hemodynamic instability constitute the main absolute contraindications for PEG tube placement in hospitalized patients.Although generally considered to be a safe procedure,there is the potential for both minor and major complications.Awareness of these potential complications,as well as understanding routine aftercare of the catheter,can improve the quality of care for patients with a PEG tube.These complications can generally be classified into three major categories:endoscopic technical difficulties,PEG procedure-related complications and late complications associated with PEG tube use and wound care.In this review we describe a variety of minor and major tube-related complications as well as strategies for their management and avoidance.Different methods of percutaneous PEG tube placement into the stomach have been described in the literature with the"pull"technique being the most common method.In the last section of this review,the reader is presented with a brief discussion of these procedures,techniques and related issues.Despite the mentioned PEG tube placement complications,this procedure has gained worldwide popularity as a safe enteral access for nutrition in patients with a functional gastrointestinal system.     

Effects of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy tube placement on gastric antral motility and gastric emptying

Background Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) is the preferred method for providing enteral nutritional support in patients with dysphagia. We examined gastric antral myoelectrical activity and gastric emptying before and after PEG tube placement to evaluate the effects of PEG on gastric motility.Methods PEG was performed in 41 patients; 21 fed by total parenteral nutrition (TPN) and 20 who received nasogastric tube feeding (NGF). Antral myoelectrical activity and gastric emptying were examined before and 4 weeks after PEG tube placement.Results The percentage of normal-range electrogastrograms (EGGs) was significantly lower in the TPN group than in the NGF group in both the pre- and postprandial periods before PEG tube placement. Enteral feeding after PEG tube placement improved gastric motility in the patients with TPN. The percentage of normal-range EGGs increased significantly after PEG tube placement in both the pre- and postprandial periods, and plasma concentrations of paracetamol increased significantly after PEG tube placement in patients with TPN. A total of 7.3% of the patients developed the complication of gastroesophageal reflux (GER) after PEG tube placement. Gastric myoelectrical activity and gastric emptying were improved in these patients with GER after PEG tube placement. In contrast, the prevalence of esophageal hiatus hernia was significantly higher in patients with GER after PEG tube placement than in patients without GER after PEG tube placement.Conclusions Prolonged TPN with bowel rest induces physiological dysfunction of gastric motility. Enteral nutrition is the preferable physiological nutritional route. GER after PEG tube placement is not related to gastric motility. Esophageal hiatus hernia seems to be a major risk factor for GER complications after PEG tube placement.     

Use of a 19-gauge injection needle as a guide for direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy tube placement

BACKGROUND: Direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy (DPEJ) tube placement is becoming an accepted means of achieving enteral nutrition. However, during DPEJ placement it can be difficult to maintain the position of the small bowel for insertion of the plastic sheath with stylet, thus limiting the success of the procedure. The results of a technique designed to overcome this problem are presented. METHODS: During DPEJ placement, a 19-gauge injection needle was passed into the bowel at the site of transillumination. The needle was snared tightly, fixing the small bowel against the abdominal wall. The plastic sheath with stylet was then inserted adjacent to the 19-gauge needle and into the small bowel and was subsequently snared to facilitate guidewire passage. A 24F, pull-type PEJ tube was then placed in standard fashion. RESULTS: A DPEJ was placed successfully in 24 of 26 (92.3%) patients with this technique. There was one (4%) major complication: inadvertent small bowel perforation during DPEJ placement. The average time to complete a procedure was 23.3 minutes; the mean time to achieve the dietary goal after DPEJ placement was 39 hours. One patient died of an unrelated illness 6 days after DPEJ placement; 23 were discharged with jejunal feeding. CONCLUSIONS: A DPEJ can be performed successfully by using a 19-gauge injection needle as guide for tube placement.     

Tube dysfunction following percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy and jejunostomy

Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) and jejunostomy (PEJ) have supplanted their surgical counterparts in many institutions. Previous reports have claimed advantages in placing PEJ tubes because of reduced gastroesophageal reflux, prevention of aspiration, and improved tube anchoring distally. We reviewed the records of 191 patients who underwent placement of PEG/J tubes. Data collected included incidence of tube dysfunction, need for tube replacement or removal, and aspiration after PEG or PEJ tube placement. Tube dysfunction, defined as peritube leakage, plugging, fracture, or migration, occurred in 36% of patients over a mean follow-up period of 275 days and was significantly more common and likely to necessitate tube replacement in PEJ patients. Tube trade-out or removal and aspiration within a 30-day period after tube placement occurred in 28% and 10% of patients, respectively. These complications were significantly more common in PEJ patients than in PEG patients. Because of the increased incidence of tube dysfunction and the failure to prevent aspiration in predisposed patients, PEJ tube placement is not routinely indicated in patients requiring tube feedings.     

Management of persistent gastroesophageal anastomotic strictures with removable self-expandable polyester silicon-covered (Polyflex) stents: an alternative to serial dilation

BACKGROUND: A benign gastroesophageal anastomotic stricture occurs in up to 42% of patients after transhiatal esophagectomy for esophageal cancer. Management of anastomotic strictures may require extended periods of serial endoscopic dilation, with significant risk, cost, and inconvenience for the patient. OBJECTIVE: To determine if placement of removable self-expandable polyester silicon-covered (Polyflex) stents (SEPSs) prolonged the interval between endoscopic interventions in the management of persistent anastomotic stricture. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: National Cancer Institute designated comprehensive cancer center. PATIENTS: Eight patients after a transhiatal esophagectomy referred for management of benign persistent anastomotic strictures. INTERVENTIONS: Serial balloon and bougie dilations and SEPS placement. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENT: The interval between endoscopic interventions and the number of endoscopic interventions before and after SEPS placement. RESULTS: Over a 365-day period, 13 SEPS were placed in 8 patients with benign persistent anastomotic strictures after a transhiatal esophagectomy. A SEPS placement delayed the interval between endoscopic interventions from a mean of 7 days before stent insertion to 62 days after insertion (P < .008). The median number of preinsertion interventions was 4 and was reduced to 1 after insertion (P < .005). LIMITATION: The small number of patients. CONCLUSIONS: A SEPS placement did not result in stricture resolution or stabilization after SEPS removal. The SEPS migration rate was much higher in our patients with postesophagectomy anastomotic strictures than previously reported for other types of strictures. However, a SEPS placement did significantly delay the interval between endoscopic interventions in patients with persistent gastroesophageal anastomotic strictures after transhiatal esophagectomy. SEPS placement should be considered as an alternative to continued serial dilation in patients with persistent anastomotic strictures after transhiatal esophagectomy.     

Enteral nutrition via percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy and nutritional status of patients: five-year prospective study

BACKGROUND: Since it was described in 1980, percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) has been a widely used method for insertion of a gastrostomy tube in patients who are unable to swallow or maintain adequate nutrition. The aim of the present paper was to determine the complications of PEG insertion and to study pre- and post-procedural nutritional status. METHODS: During the period of March 1999-September 2004, placement of PEG tube was performed in 85 patients (22 women and 63 men). Patient nutritional status was assessed before and after PEG insertion via anthropometric measurements. RESULTS: The most frequent indication for PEG insertion was neurological disorders (65.9%). Thirty patients died due to primary disease and two patients due to PEG-related complications within 5 years. There were 14 early complications in 10 patients (15.2%; <30 days), and 18 late complications in 12 patients (19.6%). Total mortality was 37.6%. All complications other than four were minor. Before PEG insertion, patients were assessed with subjective global assessment and it was determined that 43.2% of them had severe, and 41.9% of them had mild malnutrition. After PEG insertion, significant improvements on patient nutrition levels was observed. CONCLUSION: Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy is a minimally invasive gastrostomy method with low morbidity and mortality rates, is easy to follow up and easy to replace when clogged.     

Endoscopic management of biliary complications after adult living donor liver transplantation

OBJECTIVES: Biliary complications are one of the important issues to be addressed after liver transplantation. Endoscopic management of biliary complications after deceased donor liver transplantation (DDLT) is widely accepted, but it remains to be established in patients after living donor liver transplantation (LDLT). Endoscopic management in LDLT patients is difficult mainly because of the complexity of duct-to-duct reconstruction. METHODS: A total of 174 adult LDLTs with duct-to-duct reconstruction were performed in our institution. Biliary complications developed in 53 patients (30%). Among these, 18 patients were referred for endoscopic management and were the subjects of the present study. Success rate, early morbidity, and outcome were evaluated in these 18 patients. RESULTS: The type of graft was the right liver in six, left liver in eight, and right lateral sector in four patients. Ten out of 18 patients had one biliary anastomosis and the remaining eight had multiple anastomoses. Six patients had a previous history of surgical or percutaneous intervention for biliary complications after LDLT. Seventeen patients had one or more biliary strictures. Biliary casts were found in nine patients, three of whom had concomitant bile leaks. Strictures were successfully treated with endoscopic balloon dilation in 12 (71%) of the 17 patients (nasobiliary catheter placement in eight and stent placement in four patients). Bile leak was successfully managed in two of three patients. Biliary casts were removed by endoscopic papillary balloon dilation in eight of nine patients. Five patients with failed endoscopic therapy were converted to percutaneous or surgical intervention. Endoscopic-procedure-related cholangitis developed in one patient. During follow-up with median periods of 10 months (range 2-20 months), four of nine patients without stent placement developed biliary strictures, and these were relieved by additional endoscopic management. CONCLUSIONS: Endoscopic approach has the potential to be a first-line therapy for the management of biliary complications after LDLT.     

Caustic injury to the esophagus

Opinion statement The potentially catastrophic presentation and lifelong complications that result from caustic ingestion make it one of the most challenging clinical situations in gastroenterology. Patients who present with a history of caustic ingestion, particularly with a strong alkali or acid, should undergo emergent endoscopy once stabilized to assess the degree of oropharyngeal, esophageal, and gastric damage regardless of presence or lack of symptoms. Once staged, patients with moderate to severe injury should be restricted from any oral intake, placed on intravenous fluids, and observed, provided there are no signs of perforation or transmural necrosis that require immediate esophagectomy. For those who will require lengthy periods without oral intake, feeding should be initiated through a jejunostomy tube (preferably) or through total parenteral nutrition. Patients that have survived the first several weeks of injury should be reassessed for esophageal stricture formation. Chronic strictures may require serial dilations initially to establish patency and in some patients, dilation will be needed chronically to maintain the adequate lumen diameter. More severe strictures may require esophagectomy or bypass with colon or small bowel interposition. Finally, although there is an increased incidence of esophageal carcinoma in these patients, regular endoscopic screening is not advocated.     

Updates on percutaneous radiologic gastrostomy/gastrojejunostomy and jejunostomy

Gastrostomy placement for nutritional support for patients with inadequate oral intake has been attempted using surgical, endoscopic, and, more recently, percutaneous radiologically guided methods. Surgical gastrostomy has been superseded by both endoscopic and radiologic gastrostomy. We describe herein the indications, contraindications, patient preparations, techniques, complications, and aftercare with regard to radiologic gastrostomy. In addition, we discuss the available tube types and their perceived advantages. There remain some controversies regarding gastropexy performance and primary percutaneous gastrojejunostomy. Percutaneous jejunostomy is indicated for patients whose stomach is inaccessible for gastrostomy placement or for those who have had a previous gastrectomy.