Air medical rapid sequence intubation: How can we achieve success?

Airway management is an essential component of the air medical transport of critically ill or injured patients. Many controversies surround the use of rapid sequence intubation (RSI) in the prehospital setting. The challenges of establishing an airway in this environment may exceed those in the hospital. However, it is clear that the same high standards for success demanded in the hospital must be applied to RSI in the prehospital setting for the practice to be accepted and result in positive outcomes. Given their volume of high acuity patients, air medical providers are ideal candidates for performing prehospital RSI. Undertaking this responsibility requires commitment to training and quality improvement. We present the components required to establish and maintain a successful air medical RSI program.     

Is oral endotracheal intubation efficacy impaired in the helicopter environment?

INTRODUCTION: Patients transported by helicopter often require advanced airway management. The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not the in-flight environment of air medical transport in a BO-105 helicopter impairs the ability of flight nurses to perform oral endotracheal intubation. SETTING: The study was conducted in an MBB BO-105 helicopter. METHODS: Flight nurses performed three manikin intubations in each of the two study environments: on an emergency department stretcher and in-flight in the BO-105 helicopter. RESULTS: The mean time required for in-flight intubation (25.9 +/- 10.9 seconds) was significantly longer than the corresponding time (13.2 +/- 2.8 seconds) required for intubation in the control setting (ANOVA, F = 38.7, p < .001). All intubations performed in the control setting were placed correctly in the trachea; there were two (6.7%) esophageal intubations in the in-flight setting. The difference in appropriate endotracheal intubation between the two settings was not significant (chi 2 = 0.3; p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: Oral endotracheal intubation in the in-flight setting of the BO-105 helicopter takes approximately twice as long as intubation in a ground setting. The results support pre-flight intubation of patients who appear likely to require urgent intubation during air medical transport in the BO-105 helicopter.     

Use of the endotracheal tube introducer as an adjunct for oral tracheal intubation in the prehospital setting

OBJECTIVE: To prospectively evaluate the effectiveness of the endotracheal tube introducer (ETTI) versus standard orotracheal intubation (SOTI) in the prehospital air medical setting. METHODS: Critically ill patients were randomized to ETTI versus SOTI based on an odd/even day regimen. Data were collected on initial intubation attempt used, success using initial approach, number of intubation attempts until success, and laryngeal view encountered. The 2 approaches then were compared and statistically analyzed. RESULTS: Fifty-one patients were entered into the 10-month study; 20 patients were randomized to the ETTI group and 31 to SOTI. Overall success rate for first intubation attempt was 70% for the ETTI and 65% SOTI (P =.67). Total intubation time was 62 seconds (95% CI = 16-108) for the ETTI versus 62 seconds (95% CI = 38-86) for SOTI (P =.4). The ETTI group had a higher percentage of intubating difficult laryngeal views (grade 3 and 4) on first attempts than SOTI. CONCLUSION: In this study, the authors found the ETTI to be a safe airway adjunct with results equal to SOTI. The ETTI may have a useful role in prehospital airway management.     

A literature review of the prehospital use of neuromuscular blocking agents by air medical personnel to facilitate endotracheal intubation

Air medical personnel in the United States have used neuromuscular blocking agents to facilitate endotracheal intubation in the field for more than a decade. This literature review examines 15 studies to investigate their experience and explores the following specific areas: the intubation success rate in patients who did or did not receive these agents, the intubation success rate of air medical personnel before and after they incorporated these agents into their practice, the neuromuscular blocking agents and adjunct medications used by air medical personnel, and the disposition of patients who could not be intubated after an agent was given. The data suggest that, overall, air medical personnel use these agents safely and effectively. Suggestions are offered for future studies, including examining ground time when agents are used to facilitate intubation, complications of their use in this setting, and the use of simulators to train personnel in the administration of these medications.     

A retrospective analysis of the intubations performed during 5 years of helicopter emergency medical service in Amsterdam

INTRODUCTION: Different skilled personnel perform prehospital airway management, by far one of the most challenging skills with major consequences upon failure. SETTING: The setting for this study was the helicopter emergency medical service at the Vrije Universiteit Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective analysis of all medical charts of intubated trauma patients in the period from May 1995 to May 2000. We focused on intubation reasons and conditions. RESULTS: In 43 of 653 patients (7%) the process of intubation was recorded as being difficult, leading to 5 failed intubations (11.6%). In 432 of 653 trauma victims (66%), general anaesthesia was required before intubation. Forty (9%) of these patients died, most soon after arrival in the hospital. The clinical condition of 221 (34%) patients was so poor that they did not require additional drugs for intubation; 73% of those patients died, with two-thirds dying at the accident site. CONCLUSION: The rate of difficult intubation in this analysis is low (7%). The overall airway failure (11.6%) is the same as seen in the literature when sedation and relaxation are used. An adult trauma victim with a Revised Trauma Score of 0 has a very poor prognosis of survival.     

Etomidate as a sole agent for endotracheal intubation in the prehospital air medical setting

INTRODUCTION: Etomidate is an anesthetic agent with rapid onset, short duration of action, a generally stable hemodynamic profile, and cerebroprotective effects. It is used in the hospital setting to facilitate emergency endotracheal intubation. This helicopter EMS used etomidate as an intubating agent without paralytics for 2 years. METHODS: Intubations performed by the helicopter crew using etomidate alone were reviewed. Intubation was classified as successful or unsuccessful. Successful intubations requiring three or more attempts or repeated doses of etomidate were interpreted as difficult. RESULTS: Fifty patients received etomidate to facilitate orotracheal intubation. Etomidate was the sole agent in 44 of these cases. Mean age was 31 years (range 4-79); 35 patients (80%) were men. Most patients (79%) were victims of blunt trauma. The mean dose of etomidate was 0.5 mg/kg (range 0.3-1.1). Hemodynamic parameters remained stable. Intubation was successful in 39 patients (89%). Intubation was difficult in seven patients (16%) and unsuccessful in five (11%). Masseter muscle spasm was noted in three of the five patients for whom intubation was unsuccessful. Other complications included emesis in eight patients and seizure-like activity in one patient. CONCLUSION: Etomidate can be used to facilitate emergency endotracheal intubation in the prehospital air medical setting, with a success rate of 89%. At the doses used in the study, hemodynamic parameters remained stable, but intubation was difficult or unsuccessful in 27% of patients. Masseter muscle spasm, which may represent orofacial myoclonus or inadequate relaxation, is common in patients who cannot be intubated with etomidate. Etomidate is recommended as a sole agent for facilitating intubation only when rapid sequence intubation with paralysis is contraindicated or otherwise undesirable.     

院前早期气管插管对急性重型颅脑损伤患者的临床疗效及预后分析

目的探究院前早期气管插管对急性重型颅脑损伤患者的临床疗效及预后的影响。方法回顾性分析2008年1月~2014年12月綦江区人民医院收治的420例急性重型颅脑损伤的患者的临床资料,其中男性285例,女性135例;年龄19~70岁,平均45.3岁。致伤原因:道路交通伤260例,坠落伤75例,打击伤64例,其他伤21例。根据气管插管的时机将其分为早期插管组(指对受伤患者2h内实施的气管插管,191例,)和延迟插管组(指对受伤患者2h后或出现以下呼吸衰竭表现时给予的气管插管,229例),分析插管前、插管后1d及3d血气指标及颅内压变化,比较两组患者肺部感染发生率、死亡率及6个月神经功能即日常生活活动能力(ADL分级)情况。结果与气管插管前比较,两组患者插管后1、3d的动脉血氧分压(PaO_2)和血氧饱和度(SpO_2)明显升高(PaO_2:P=0.038;SpO_2:P=0.041),而动脉二氧化碳分压(PaCO_2)、心率(HR)、呼吸频率(RR)及颅内压明显降低(PaCO_2:P=0.033;HR:P=0.036;RR:P=0.044);早期插管组插管后1d及3d的PaO_2、SpO_2较对应的延迟插管组升高(插管后1d的PaO_2:P=0.027,SpO_2:P=0.028;插管后3d的PaO_2:P=0.017,SpO_2:P=0.031),而PaCO_2、HR、RR及颅内压降低(插管后1d的PaCO_2:P=0.036,HR:P=0.034,RR:P=0.023;插管后3d的PaCO_2:P=0.022,HR:P=0.030,RR:P=0.026)。早期插管组肺部感染发生率及死亡率明显低于延迟插管组(肺部感染发生率:P=0.038;死亡率:P=0.026)。早期插管组ADL分级Ⅰ级和Ⅱ级比例明显高于延迟插管组,而Ⅲ级、Ⅳ级、Ⅴ级明显低于延迟插管组(P=0.024)。结论早期气管插管可有效改善急性重型颅脑损伤患者临床疗效及预后,对于降低其致残率及死亡率具有重要的临床意义,值得临床运用及推广。     

A comparison of pediatric and adult trauma patients transported by helicopter and ground EMS: managed-care considerations

INTRODUCTION: There is a paucity of data comparing injured pediatric patients transported by helicopter emergency medical services (HEMS) with patients transported by ground ambulance. The purpose of this study was to compare HEMS pediatric trauma patients to: 1) pediatric patients transported by ground to an urban level-1 trauma center (TC), and; 2) a similar cohort of adult patients. The managed-care consequences of these comparisons are highlighted. METHODS: All trauma patients flown directly from the scene by HEMS from January 1, 1990, to April 30, 1993, were compared to a cohort of trauma patients arriving by ground advanced life support (ALS). All patients were transported to the same level-1 TC. The data collected included the mechanism of injury and the prehospital procedures performed, the injury severity score (ISS), and outcome. RESULTS: There was no difference in the ISS between the HEMS (n = 216) and ground ALS (n = 355) pediatric patients (16.8 vs 17.1; p = 0.55). Adult HEMS patients (n = 202) had significantly higher ISS than did injured adults (n = 1652) transported by ground (18.0 vs 13.6; p < 0.0001). Overall, trauma patients transported by air directly from the scene have a higher ISS than patients transported by ground (17.5 vs 13.6; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric patients transported by HEMS were as severely injured as those transported by ground, in contrast to adult patients. We conjecture that since trauma triage schemes classically focus on adults, ground personnel are more selective about which patients are flown to a TC, and less selective for pediatric patients. Trauma centers and HEMS programs should develop pediatric trauma triage protocols that do not overemphasize physiologic parameters.     

In-flight ultrasound identification of pneumothorax

Ultrasound is a standard adjunct to the initial evaluation of injured patients in the emergency department. We sought to evaluate the ability of prehospital, in-flight thoracic ultrasound to identify pneumothorax. Non-physician aeromedical providers were trained to perform and interpret thoracic ultrasound. All adult trauma patients and adult medical patients requiring endotracheal intubation underwent both in-flight and emergency department ultrasound evaluations. Findings were documented independently and reviewed to ensure quality and accuracy. Results were compared to chest X-ray and computed tomography (CT). One hundred forty-nine patients (136 trauma/13 medical) met inclusion criteria. Mean age was 44.4 (18–94) years; 69 % were male. Mean injury severity score was 17.68 (1–75), and mean chest injury score was 2.93 (0–6) in the injured group. Twenty pneumothoraces and one mainstem intubation were identified. Sixteen pneumothoraces were correctly identified in the field. A mainstem intubation was misinterpreted. When compared to chest CT (n?=?116), prehospital ultrasound had a sensitivity of 68 % (95 % confidence interval (CI) 46–85 %), a specificity of 96 % (95 % CI 90–98 %), and an overall accuracy of 91 % (95 % CI 85–95 %). In comparison, emergency department (ED) ultrasound had a sensitivity of 84 % (95 % CI 62–94 %), specificity of 98 % (95 % CI 93–99 %), and an accuracy of 96 % (95 % CI 90–98 %). The unique characteristics of the aeromedical environment render the auditory element of a reliable physical exam impractical. Thoracic ultrasonography should be utilized to augment the diagnostic capabilities of prehospital aeromedical providers.     

Aggressive out-of-hospital treatment regimen for severe closed head injury in patients undergoing air medical transport

The impact of aggressive out-of-hospital management on disposition for 1286 patients with closed head injuries in ground advanced life support (ALS) and helicopter services was evaluated over 60 months in San Diego County. The case group included 196 air medical patients with a scene Glascow coma scale (GCS) < 9 who were treated according to a standard head injury protocol. The frequency matched control group included 1090 ground ALS patients receiving airway management with hyperventilation but neither induction agents nor mannitol. The trauma registry provided admission and discharge dates, neurosurgical interventions, and disposition. Patient age, scene GCS, head and neck abbreviated injury scale (HNAIS), and injury severity score (ISS) served to stratify study groups. Case-control distribution of mortality was compared with the two-tailed Mantel-Haenszel weighted odds ratio (OR) and chisquared test; significance at P < or = 0.05. The case group displayed an 11% decreased mortality (P < 0.01), remaining significant after adjusting for age (P = 0.05) and scene GCS (P = 0.06). The case group displayed 10% (P < 0.01) greater survivor discharges to rehabilitation and 6% (P < 0.05) fewer discharges to extended care facilities. This study's data indicate a strong possibility for improved patient morbidity and mortality in severe closed head injuries treated with an aggressive treatment protocol and rapid air medical transport.     

Safety of fentanyl for analgesia in adults undergoing air medical transport from trauma scenes

Introduction: Although proper analgesia provision for patients in the in hospital acute setting has received recent attention, little discussion has been done of prehospital pain relief. This study was conducted to evaluate the safety of fentanyl administration during air medical transport of adult trauma patients.Setting: Urban air medical transport program using a flight nurse/paramedic crew operating with patient care protocols and off-line medical control.Methods: Flight records for trauma patients transported directly from the scene receiving fentanyl were analyzed retrospectively. Study parameters were obtained for the times just preceding and after fentanyl administration. A t test (α = 0.05) comparison between before and after fentanyl administration was performed for the following study parameters: systolic blood pressure, heart rate, oxygen saturation, respiratory rate, and Glasgow coma score in non-intubated patients. Flight records were also reviewed for any administration of naloxone or subjective notation of complications possibly attributable to fentanyl.Results: Fentanyl was administered 154 times to 99 patients. No patient received in-flight naloxone, and no fentanyl-related complications were noted on flight record review.Conclusion: Administration of fentanyl for in-flight trauma analgesia in adults seems safe. Further study should investigate efficacy of in-flight fentanyl administration and determine whether prehospital opiate administration impairs emergency department evaluation of trauma patients.     

飞行人员和地勤人员前庭植物神经反应的比较研究

对眼震电图示前庭眼动反射正常的飞行人员和地勤人员各30例，进行冷热水试验、视动刺激和Coriolis加速度刺激时的胃电图记录，观察比较了其前庭植物神经反应。结果表明：冷热水试验时飞行人员和地勤人员的胃电频率和振幅无明显差异；机动刺激和Coriolis加速度刺激时飞行人员的胃电振幅明显低于地勤人员。研究结果提示，前庭植物神经反应的稳定性可以通过长期锻炼而获得；视动刺激和Coriolis加速度刺激时的胃电振幅的定量测定可作为飞行人员医学选拔、晕机病诊断及其矫治效果评定的客观依据之一。     

One year's trauma mortality experience at Brooke Army Medical Center: is aeromedical transportation of trauma patients necessary?

The purpose of this study was to review whether air ambulance transportation of trauma patients to the Brooke Army Medical Center (BAMC) level I trauma center contributed to maintaining national mortality standards in the trauma care of these patients. Aeromedical transportation is considered a standard-of-care component of regional trauma systems throughout the United States. Pooled trauma database information from 792 consecutive ambulance-transported trauma patients received at BAMC during the fiscal year from October 1, 1995, to September 30, 1996, were reviewed. The 792 trauma patients were composed of 687 patients transported by ground ambulance and 105 patients who received helicopter aeromedical evacuation. Aeromedical evacuation was associated with increased levels of prehospital medical care and faster transportation than ground ambulance service. The mortality rates (immediate, early, and late deaths) of both ambulance groups were compared with national mortality standards using the internationally recognized Trauma and Injury Severity Score methodology, based on the Major Trauma Outcome Study in 1986 and validated in 1992. The Z test for independent populations demonstrated no statistically significant difference between BAMC trauma mortality rates for either ambulance group compared with national trauma mortality rates. The results suggest that aeromedical evacuation of the more severely injured patients farthest from the BAMC trauma center resulted in mortality rates that met national standards.     

Medical helicopters in wilderness search and rescue operations

Medical helicopters may be asked to assist in wilderness search and rescue (SAR) operations to quickly reach patients in remote areas and provide medical care and transport of sick or injured persons. The number 1 priority for any medical helicopter involved in an SAR operation is safety, which is considered at each decision point. The involvement of a medical helicopter service begins with a request from a local agency for support. Obtaining key information about the SAR operation from the local agency is essential for deciding whether to accept the mission and for making appropriate preparations for the mission. While en route to the SAR location, the medical crew can review the information regarding location and patient status. Once on location, the crew can survey the scene from the air before landing at the command post to brief with SAR personnel regarding the mission. An initial survey of the scene from the air is important for identifying landing zones and evaluating the terrain where the rescue will occur. A face-to-face briefing with SAR personnel is preferable to learn specifically what type of mission is requested. The medical helicopter crew is empowered to decline the mission for safety reasons at any step. The actual rescue may be done by inserting the helicopter at the scene in nontechnical terrain or by having SAR personnel extricate the patient and deliver him or her to the medical helicopter crew at the nearest safe landing zone. Medical care and transport of the patient as indicated by injuries or illness then occurs. Finally, a postmission debriefing is essential for identifying problems that occurred during the mission and implementing corrections for improvement.     

Development of prehospital medical classification criteria

INTRODUCTION: A trauma classification system (TCS) is widely used by many prehospital personnel to provide advanced activation of trauma teams. Specific criteria serve to notify specialty departments and enhance communication between prehospital and emergency department (ED) personnel. Because the TCS has worked so well, a medical classification criteria tool (MCCT) was developed to consistently notify EDs of medical patients' acuity, enhance communication, and provide a smooth transfer of care. METHOD: MCCT development included establishment of tool validity by experts; retrospective chart review to determine consistency and accuracy of classification; and a pilot test of the MCCT at three hospitals. After the pilot, satisfaction surveys were distributed to receiving hospitals to determine tool effectiveness, ease of use, and enhanced transition of care. RESULTS: Of the receiving staff surveyed, 97% found the tool easy to understand; 82% thought the MCCT enabled them to effectively prepare for patients; 62% perceived consistency in classification by the helicopter staff. The flight crew had a 100% positive response regarding ease of MCCT use; 36% noted a positive change in preparation for medical patients' transfer of care. CONCLUSION: The MCCT enhances communication and is useful in preparation and transition of patient care from prehospital to the hospital environment. Advanced notification of patient illness severity may enhance care and affect overall outcome.