Zinc-induced inhibition of protein synthesis and reduction of connexin-43 expression and intercellular communication in mouse cortical astrocytes

Zinc released from a subpopulation of glutamatergic synapses, mainly localized in the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus, facilitates or reduces glutamatergic transmission by acting on neuronal AMPA and NMDA receptors, respectively. However, neurons are not the only targets of zinc. In the present study, we provide evidence that zinc inhibits protein synthesis in cultured astrocytes from the cerebral cortex of embryonic mice. This inhibition, which reached 85% in the presence of 100 micro m zinc, was partially and slowly reversible and resulted from the successive inhibition of the elongation and the initiation steps of the protein translation process. This was assessed by measuring the phosphorylation level of the elongation factor eEF-2 and of the alpha subunit of the initiation factor eIF-2. Due to the rapid turnover of connexin-43 that forms junction channels in cultured astrocytes, the zinc-induced decrease of protein synthesis led to a partial disappearance of connexin-43, which was associated with an inhibition of the cellular coupling in the astrocytic syncitium. In conclusion, zinc not only inhibits protein synthesis in neurons, as previously demonstrated, but also in astrocytes. The resulting decrease in the intercellular communication between astrocytes should alter the function of surrounding neurons as well as their survival.     

星形胶质细胞AQP4蛋白在缺氧/复氧条件下表达变化的研究

目的观察缺氧/复氧条件下星形胶质细胞形态和AQP4蛋白的表达变化以及葛根素对其表达变化的影响,探讨脑缺血再灌注损伤与AQP4的关系以及葛根素的干预作用。方法原代培养星形胶质细胞,用5%CO2+95%N2混合气体造成缺氧,以LDH漏出率及MTT降解率作为细胞受损指标,应用Western blot技术检验星形胶质细胞缺氧/复氧各个时间点AQP4蛋白的表达变化及葛根素的干预效果。结果体外培养的星形胶质细胞在缺氧环境下损伤不明显,随着复氧时间的延长细胞损害加重。AQP4蛋白在缺氧时表达与正常对照组无明显差异,复氧后表达升高并随时间延长呈增高趋势(P0.05)。葛根素干预组AQP4蛋白表达丰度与缺氧/复氧组无明显差异(P0.05)。结论星形胶质细胞AQP4蛋白表达变化与细胞损伤有明显相关性,葛根素对星形胶质细胞损伤的保护作用不是通过改变AQP4的表达来实现的。     

Arachidonic acid inhibits myelin basic protein phosphorylation in cultured oligodendrocytes

Protein phosphorylation is a well-known mechanism by which extracellular molecules or factors transduce their signals into intracellular effects. In the context of myelin assembly, phosphorylation of major myelin proteins affects the electrostatic repulsion between adjacent proteins within myelin structure and therefore constitutes one of the mechanisms by which myelin stability is regulated. We report here that arachidonic acid (AA) decreases the phosphorylation of myelin basic protein (MBP) both in the absence and in the presence of phorbol esters in cultured rat oligodendrocytes (OLGs). The effect of AA on MBP phosphorylation is not mediated by cyclooxygenase products, though the possibility that leukotrienes or other epoxides may have a role cannot be excluded. AA did not act by inactivation of protein kinase C. Based on our findings from gadolinium and low K⁺ experiments, we conclude that inhibition of MBP phosphorylation is not dependent on AA-induced increases in OLG Ca_i, but rather on its depolarizing action. We have thus demonstrated that a brief exposure to AA, which either acts as a diffusible paracrine signal to OLGs or as a signal transducer, can trigger changes in protein phosphorylation in OLGs/myelin via ionic signaling events at the plasma membrane. GLIA 21:277–284, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Nerve growth factor increases connexin43 phosphorylation and gap junctional intercellular communication

The function of gap junctions is regulated by the phosphorylation state of their connexin subunits. Numerous growth factors are known to regulate connexin phosphorylation; however, the effect of nerve growth factor on gap junction function is not understood. The phosphorylation of connexin subunits is a key event during many aspects of the lifecycle of a connexin, including open/close states, assembly/trafficking, and degradation, and thus affects the functionality of the channel. PC12 cells infected with connexin43 (Cx43) retrovirus were used as a neuronal model to characterize the signal transduction pathways activated by nerve growth factor (NGF) that potentially affect the functional state of Cx43. Immunoblot analysis demonstrated that Cx43 and the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), ERK-1/2, were phosphorylated in response to TrkA activation via NGF and that phosphorylation could be prevented by treatment with the MEK-1/2 inhibitor U0126. The effects of NGF on gap junction intercellular communication were examined by monitoring fluorescence recovery after photobleaching PC12-Cx43 cells preloaded with calcein. Fluorescence recovery in the photobleached area increased after NGF treatment and decreased when pretreated with the MEK-1/2 inhibitor U0126. These data are the first to show a direct signaling link between neurotrophins and the phosphorylation of connexin proteins through the MAPK pathway resulting in increased gap junctional intercellular communication. Neurotrophic regulation of connexin activity provides a novel mechanism of regulating intercellular communication between neurons during nervous system development and repair.     

Rat cultured astrocytes release guanine-based purines in basal conditions and after hypoxia/hypoglycemia

Brain ischemia stimulates release from astrocytes of adenine-based purines, particularly adenosine, which is neuroprotective. Guanosine, which has trophic properties that may aid recovery following neurological damage, is present in high local concentrations for several days after focal cerebral ischemia. We investigated whether guanine-based purines, like their adenine-based counterparts, were released from astrocytes and whether their release increased following hypoxia/hypoglycemia. HPLC analysis of culture medium of rat astrocytes showed spontaneous release of endogenous guanine-based purines at a higher rate than their adenine-based counterparts. The concentration of guanosine (≈120 nM) and adenosine (≈43 nM) in the culture medium remained constant, whereas concentrations of adenine and guanine nucleotides, particularly GMP, and their metabolites increased with time. Exposure of the cultures to hypoxia/hypoglycemia for 30 min increased the extracellular concentration of adenine-based purines by 2.5-fold and of guanine-based purines by 3.5-fold. Following hypoxia/hypoglycemia extracellular adenine nucleotide levels increased further. Adenosine concentration increased, but not proportionally to nucleotide levels. Accumulation of adenosine metabolites indicated it was rapidly metabolized. Conversely, the concentrations of extracellular guanine-based nucleotides remained elevated and the concentration of guanosine continued to increase. These data indicate that astrocytes are a major source of guanine-based purines, the release of which is markedly increased following hypoxia/hypoglycemia, permitting them to exert neurotrophic effects. GLIA 25:93–98, 1999. © 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Distinct developmental subtypes of cultured non-stellate rat astrocytes distinguished by a new glial intermediate filament-associated protein

The nature and tissue origin of cultured non-stellate astrocytes have not been defined. On the basis of immunofluorescence microscopy using multiple double-labeling with antibodies to glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), vimentin, and the recently identified intermediate filament-associated protein (IFAP)-70/280kD, four distinct astrocytic subtypes were definable in neonatal rat brain astrocytes in culture. All of these were of the non-stellate type on the basis of morphology. Similar examination of developing rat cerebral cortex identified these same subtypes as distinct differentiation states of astrocytes. These findings indicate that the parallel developmental events can be studied in vitro.     

高钾和（或）谷氨酸对培养的星形胶质细胞Connexin43表达的影响

研究高浓度钾和 (或 )谷氨酸对星形胶质细胞缝隙连接蛋白表达的影响。利用培养的星形胶质细胞 ,用免疫细胞化学方法 ,观察connexin4 3(Cx4 3)表达的变化。结果 :单独给予氯化钾 (2 5mmol/L ,× 10min)或谷氨酸 (4 0 0 μmol/L ,× 2 0min) ,刺激后 8hCx4 3的表达较对照组增高 (P <0 .0 1) ,2 4h恢复正常 ;同时给予氯化钾 (2 5mmol/L)和谷氨酸 (4 0 0 μmol/L ,× 10min) ,刺激后 8hCx4 3的表达开始较对照组增高(P <0 .0 1) ,且随时间逐渐增高 ,于 4 8h达高峰。以上结果提示 :细胞外高浓度钾和 (或 )谷氨酸在一定时间内可引起Cx4 3表达上调 ,且两者可能有协同作用     

Brain macrophages inhibit gap junctional communication and downregulate connexin 43 expression in cultured astrocytes

Astrocytes are typically interconnected by gap junction channels that allow, in vitro as well as in vivo, a high degree of intercellular communication between these glial cells. Using cocultures of astrocytes and neurons, we have demonstrated that gap junctional communication (GJC) and connexin 43 (Cx43) expression, the major junctional protein in astrocytes, are controlled by neuronal activity. Moreover, neuronal death downregulates these two parameters. Because in several brain pathologies neuronal loss is associated with an increase in brain macrophage (BM) density, we have now investigated whether coculture with BM affects astrocyte gap junctions. We report here that addition of BM for 24 h decreases the expression of GJC and Cx43 in astrocytes in a density-dependent manner. In contrast, Cx43 is not detected in BM and no heterotypic coupling is observed between the two cell types. A soluble factor does not seem to be involved in these inhibitions because they are not observed either in the presence of BM conditioned media or in the absence of direct contact between the two cell types by using inserts. These observations could have pathophysiological relevance as neuronal death, microglial proliferation and astrocytic reactions occur in brain injuries and pathologies. Because astrocyte interactions with BM and dying neurons both result in the downregulation of Cx43 expression and in the inhibition of GJC, a critical consequence on astrocytic phenotype in those situations could be the inhibition of gap junctions.     

Endothelin-1 regulates glucose utilization in cultured astrocytes by controlling intercellular communication through gap junctions

The role played by endothelin-1 and intercellular communication mediated by gap junctions in the regulation of glucose disposal by astrocytes has been studied in primary culture. Endothelin-1 increased glucose uptake by astrocytes as did one of its putative messenger arachidonic acid and the non-physiological gap junction uncoupler α-glycyrrhetinic acid (AGA). None of these agents increased glucose uptake by C6 glioma cells, a cell line in which gap junction proteins are poorly expressed. In confluent astrocytes, the inhibition of gap junction permeability caused by AGA doubled the activity of the pentose phosphate shunt with minimal changes in the activity of the pyruvate dehydrogenase-catalyzed reaction and that of the tricarboxylic acid cycle. By contrast, these effects were not observed in dissociated astrocytes in which intercellular communication is lacking. The scraped loading dye transfer technique was modified to follow the passage of glucose and its metabolites through astrocyte gap junctions. The diffusion of glucose, the phosphorylated derivative glucose-6-phosphate, the phosphorylisable but not metabolisable derivative ortho-methyl-glucose, and the anaerobic glycolytic product L-lactate was much higher in astrocytes than in C6 glioma cells and was inhibited by the inhibition of gap junction permeability caused by endothelin-1, arachidonic acid, octanol, or AGA. It is concluded that gap junction permeability may regulate brain metabolism by controlling the uptake, utilization, and intercellular distribution of glucose and its metabolites in astrocytes. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Modulation of intercellular calcium signaling by melatonin in avian and mammalian astrocytes is brain region-specific

Calcium waves among glial cells impact many central nervous system functions, including neural integration and brain metabolism. Here, we characterized the modulatory effects of melatonin, a pineal neurohormone that mediates circadian and seasonal processes, on glial calcium waves derived from different brain regions and species. Diencephalic and telencephalic astrocytes, from both chick and mouse brains, expressed melatonin receptor proteins. Further, using the calcium-sensitive dye Fluo-4, we conducted real-time imaging analyses of calcium waves propagated among mammalian and avian astrocytes. Mouse diencephalic astrocytic calcium waves spread to an area 2-5-fold larger than waves among avian astrocytes and application of 10 nM melatonin caused a 32% increase in the spread of these mammalian calcium waves, similar to the 23% increase observed in chick diencephalic astrocytes. In contrast, melatonin had no effect on calcium waves in either avian or mammalian telencephalic astrocytes. Mouse telencephalic calcium waves radially spread from their initiation site among untreated astrocytes. However, waves meandered among mouse diencephalic astrocytes, taking heterogeneous paths at variable rates of propagation. Brain regional differences in wave propagation were abolished by melatonin, as diencephalic astrocytes acquired more telencephalon-like wave characteristics. Astrocytes cultured from different brain regions, therefore, possess fundamentally disparate mechanisms of calcium wave propagation and responses to melatonin. These results suggest multiple roles for melatonin receptors in the regulation of astroglial function, impacting specific brain regions differentially.     

Zinc binds to and directly inhibits protein phosphatase 2A in vitro

Zinc induces protein phosphatase 2A(PP2A) inactivation and tau hyperphosphorylation through PP2A(tyrosine 307) phosphorylation in cells and the brain, but whether Zn2+ has a direct inhibitory effect on PP2 A is not clear. Here we explored the effect of Zn2+ on PP2 A and their direct interaction in vitro. The results showed that Zn2+ mimicked the inhibitory effect of okadaic acid on protein phosphatase and prevented tau dephosphorylation in N2 a cell lysates. PP2 A activity assays indicated that a low concentration(10 μmol/L) of Zn2+ inhibited PP2 A directly. Further Zn2+-IDA-agarose affinity binding assays showed that Zn2+ bound to and inhibited PP2Ac(51-270) but not PP2Ac(1-50) or PP2Ac(271-309). Taken together, Zn2+ inhibits PP2 A directly through binding to PP2Ac(51-270) in vitro.     

伽玛刀照射后胶质细胞CX43和GFAP表达变化及意义

目的研究伽玛刀照射后胶质细胞缝隙连接蛋白43(Connexin43,Cx43)和胶质纤维酸蛋白(glial fibrillary acid protein,GFAP)表达的变化。方法体外培养原代星形胶质细胞(astrocytes,Ast)分为正常对照组和γ刀照射组,后者经γ刀照射(边缘剂量4～36Gy),培养72小时后检测GFAP,Cx43。结果4～12Gy组与正常对照组无显著差异,至16Gy组胶质细胞开始增生GFAP表达阳性细胞数大于正常对照组且呈剂量依赖性增高至32Gy组GFAP表达达最大值。Cx43表达在12Gy组即开始明显下降且Cx43表达呈计量依赖性减低,在24～32Gy降低尤为显著至32Gy组达最低值。结论原代培养Ast经伽玛刀照射后GFAP表达增高,同时Cx43表达减低。Cx43的异常低表达可能是胶质增生及放射损伤的重要原因。     

Influence of chronic intermittent hypoxia on growth associated protein 43 expression in the hippocampus of young rats

This study aimed to explore the pathological change to hippocampal neurons and the expression of growth associated protein 43 in 21-day-old young rats following chronic intermittent hypoxia.Hematoxylin-eosin staining results showed varying degrees of degeneration and necrosis in hippocampal neurons depending on the modeling time.Immunohistochemistry revealed that growth associated protein 43 expression in young rats following chronic intermittent hypoxia decreased,but that levels were still higher than those of normal rats at each time point,especially 4 weeks after modeling.During 1-5 weeks after modeling,a slow growth in rat weight was observed.Experimental findings indicate that chronic intermittent hypoxia may induce growth dysfunction and necrosis of hippocampal neurons,as well as increase the expression of growth associated protein 43 in young rats.     

Effects of neuroglobin overexpression on mitochondrial function and oxidative stress following hypoxia/reoxygenation in cultured neurons

Neuroglobin (Ngb) is a recently discovered tissue globin with a high affinity for oxygen that is widely and specifically expressed in neurons of vertebrate central and peripheral nervous systems. Our laboratory and others have shown Ngb overexpression can protect neurons against hypoxic/ischemic insults, but the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this study, we examined the effects of Ngb overexpression on mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and neurotoxicity in primary cortical neurons following hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R). Ngb-overexpressing transgenic neurons (Ngb-Tg) were significantly protected against H/R-induced cell death. Rates of decline in ATP levels, MTT reduction, and mitochondrial membrane potential were significantly ameliorated in Ngb-Tg neurons. Furthermore, Ngb overexpression reduced superoxide anion generation after H/R, whereas glutathione levels were significantly improved compared with WT controls. Taken together, these data suggest that Ngb is neuroprotective against hypoxia, in part by improving mitochondria function and decreasing oxidative stress.     

Platelet adhesion to collagen activates a phosphoprotein complex of heat-shock proteins and protein phosphatase 1

Summary Rapid activation of blood platelets is required for effective haemostasis, with shape change, aggregation, secretion of granule contents and cell adhesion occurring in seconds or even milliseconds. Signal-transduction events, evidenced by changes in protein phosphorylation and calcium levels, also take place in this time domain. We have now shown that platelet adhesion to collagen via the ₂₁ integrin under arterial shear forces initiated the rapid dephosphorylation of a 67 kDa protein band which contained the 70 kDa constitutive heat-shock protein, hsc70. Immunoprecipitation with hsc70 antibodies revealed a large phosphoprotein complex in resting platelets and adhesion caused dissociation of the complex along with dephosphorylation of hsc70. The complex also contained the hsp90 heat-shock protein, protein phosphatase 1C, , and M subunits, and some 7–8 unidentified phosphoproteins. The data suggest that heat-shock proteins and protein phosphatases are actively involved in integrin-mediated platelet adhesion.     

Pentoxifylline and propentofylline prevent proliferation and activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin and mitogen activated protein kinase in cultured spinal astrocytes

Astrocyte activation is an important feature in many disorders of the central nervous system, including chronic pain conditions. Activation of astrocytes is characterized by a change in morphology, including hypertrophy and increased size of processes, proliferation, and an increased production of proinflammatory mediators. The xanthine derivatives pentoxifylline and propentofylline are commonly used experimentally as glial inhibitors. These compounds are generally believed to attenuate glial activity by raising cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels and inhibiting glial tumor necrosis factor (TNF) production. In the present study, we show that these substances inhibit TNF and serum‐induced astrocyte proliferation and signaling through the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, demonstrated by decreased levels of phosphorylated S6 kinase (S6K), commonly used as a marker of mTOR complex (mTORC) activation. Furthermore, we show that pentoxifylline and propentofylline also inhibit JNK and p38, but not ERK, activation induced by TNF. In addition, the JNK antagonist SP600125, but not the p38 inhibitor SB203580, prevents TNF‐induced activation of S6 kinase, suggesting that pentoxifylline and propentofylline may regulate mTORC activity in spinal astrocytes partially through inhibition of the JNK pathway. Our results suggest that pentoxifylline and propentofylline inhibit astrocyte activity in a broad fashion by attenuating flux through specific pathways. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Alterations in hippocampal GAP-43 phosphorylation and protein level following contextual fear conditioning

C57BL/6 (B6) mice display better contextual learning than the DBA/2 (D2) mice. The possibility that GAP-43, is differentially affected as a function of strain and learning was investigated in the present study. No basal difference between C57BL/6J (B6) and DBA/2J (D2) mice in the amount of hippocampal GAP-43 was observed, but naive D2 mice have slightly lower basal levels of GAP-43 phosphorylation than do B6 mice. Interestingly, alterations in hippocampal GAP-43 protein levels and phosphorylation state in response to training for contextual learning were observed only in B6 mice. Immediate-shocked mice, serving as nonlearning controls, showed no GAP-43 alterations, nor did D2 mice subjected to either training condition. These results suggest that modulation of hippocampal GAP-43 may be important for contextual learning and that strain-specific alterations in GAP-43 may be part of a disrupted pathway in D2 mice that is essential for learning.     

In vivo induction of the growth associated protein GAP43/B-50 in rat astrocytes following transient middle cerebral artery occlusion

Immunohistochemistry was used to investigate the induction of growth-associated protein GAP43/B-50 in the astrocytes of rat cerebrum in vivo following ischemic injury produced by 30 min of transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. Three days after operation, GAP43 immunoreactivity first appeared in some astrocytic populations surrounding the infarcted lesion. Induction of GAP43 in those astrocytes persisted for up to 14 days and disappeared at 30 days postoperation. Double-immunofluorescence staining confirmed that the GAP43-immunoreactive astrocytes examined were all positive for glial fibrillary acidic protein. Our present data suggest that certain astrocytes could be induced to synthesize GAP43 in vivo in response to an ischemic insult in adult rats.