Patient identification data on medical images

MRI of the kidney currently makes the transition from depiction of morphology to assessment of function. Functional renal imaging methods provide information on diffusion and perfusion on a microstructural level. This review article presents the current status of functional renal imaging with focus on DWI (diffusion-weighted imaging) and DCE-MRI (dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI), as well as BOLD (blood-oxygenation level dependent) MRI, DTI (diffusion tensor imaging) and arterial spin labeling (ASL). Technical background of these techniques is explained and clinical assessment of renal function, parenchymal disease, transplant function and solid masses is discussed.     

Nierenfunktionsdiagnostik mittels Magnetresonanztomographie

Due to progress in the development of sequences and techniques magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) methods, such as functional MR urography (fMRU), arterial spin labeling (ASL), diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI), diffusion tension imaging (DTI) and blood oxygen level dependent MRI (BOLD-MRI) have become available for renal functional evaluation. In recent years research of these imaging techniques has demonstrated that they provide valid functional data with respect to renal perfusion, oxygenation and interstitial diffusion as well as glomerular filtration and the extent of an obstructive uropathy. Many pathophysiological renal processes, e.?g. in transplanted kidneys, in the setting of chronic kidney disease and in the diagnostics of renal tumors, can therefore be fully evaluated. The fMRU, which enables a reliable assessment of renal function combined with high-resolution morphological evaluation of the kidneys and the entire urinary tract, has already become an inherent component in the clinical setting, at least in specialized pediatric radiology centers. To establish the new imaging methods in the clinical routine, further technical improvements and large-scale prospective clinical studies are necessary to validate the determined functional parameters, to generate standard protocols and to unify and facilitate data post-processing.     

Functional MRI of the kidneys

Renal function is characterized by different physiologic aspects, including perfusion, glomerular filtration, interstitial diffusion, and tissue oxygenation. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) shows great promise in assessing these renal tissue characteristics noninvasively. The last decade has witnessed a dramatic progress in MRI techniques for renal function assessment. This article briefly describes relevant renal anatomy and physiology, reviews the applications of functional MRI techniques for the diagnosis of renal diseases, and lists unresolved issues that will require future work. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2013;37:282–293. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Functional assessment of transplanted kidneys with magnetic resonance imaging

Kidney transplantation has emerged as the treatment of choice for many patients with end-stage renal disease, which is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Given the shortage of clinically available donor kidneys and the significant incidence of allograft dysfunction, a noninvasive and accurate assessment of the allograft renal function is critical for postoperative management. Prompt diagnosis of graft dysfunction facilitates clinical intervention of kidneys with salvageable function. New advances in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology have enabled the calculation of various renal parameters that were previously not feasible to measure noninvasively. Diffusion-weighted imaging provides information on renal diffusion and perfusion simultaneously, with quantification by the apparent diffusion coefficient, the decrease of which reflects renal function impairment. Diffusion-tensor imaging accounts for the directionality of molecular motion and measures fractional anisotropy of the kidneys. Blood oxygen level-dependent MR evaluates intrarenal oxygen bioavailability, generating the parameter of R2* (reflecting the concentration of deoxyhemoglobin). A decrease in R2* could happen during acute rejection. MR nephro-urography/renography demonstrates structural data depicting urinary tract obstructions and functional data regarding the glomerular filtration and blood flow. MR angiography details the transplant vasculature and is particularly suitable for detecting vascular complications, with good correlation with digital subtraction angiography. Other functional MRI technologies, such as arterial spin labeling and MR spectroscopy, are showing additional promise. This review highlights MRI as a comprehensive modality to diagnose a variety of etiologies of graft dysfunction, including prerenal (e.g., renal vasculature), renal (intrinsic causes) and postrenal (e.g., obstruction of the collecting system) etiologies.     

功能MRI在儿童肾脏疾病诊断中的研究进展

儿童肾脏疾病可导致肾功能持续下降,需及时监测并控制其进展。目前,多种功能MRI(fMRI)技术已逐步用于儿童肾脏研究,不仅能明确肾脏结构有无异常,还可从肾脏水分子扩散、血氧水平等微观角度对肾功能进行评估,包括扩散加权成像（DWI）、扩散张量成像（DTI）、扩散张量纤维束示踪成像（DTT）、扩散峰度成像（DKI）、血氧水平依赖（BOLD）成像、MR灌注成像。介绍儿童肾脏的生理解剖特点,并综述fMRI在肾脏发育异常、慢性肾脏病、感染性病变、肿瘤性病变等多种疾病中的研究进展。     

功能MRI在评价对比剂诱导急性肾损伤中的研究进展

对比剂诱导急性肾损伤（CI-AKI）是注射碘对比剂后严重的并发症之一,早期诊断和治疗可以改善或延缓肾损伤。目前多种功能MRI（fMRI）技术可用于肾损伤后肾脏微循环和病理生理学的评估,包括扩散加权成像（DWI）、体素内不相干运动（IVIM）成像、扩散张量成像（DTI）、扩散峰度成像（DKI）、血氧水平依赖（BOLD）成像、动脉自旋标记（ASL）成像等。这些技术不但可以对肾功能损害进行定量分析,还可以在肾损伤的早期诊断和监测方面提供更多信息。就CI-AKI的发病机制及fMRI评价CI-AKI的研究现状做一综述。     

肾脏缺血再灌注损伤的功能MRI实验研究进展

肾脏缺血再灌注损伤是导致急性肾损伤和移植肾功能延迟恢复的重要因素,严重者甚至会发生急性肾衰竭。扩散加权成像（DWI）、体素内不相干运动（IVIM）、血氧水平依赖（BOLD）、动脉自旋标记（ASL）、纵向弛豫时间定量成像（T1 mapping）等功能MRI能够无创、敏感、多次地监测不同程度的肾损伤,提供水分子扩散、微循环、血流灌注及血氧水平等微观信息的动态变化,为了解肾脏缺血再灌注损伤的发生机制、早期诊断、预后评估等提供更多信息。就肾脏缺血再灌注损伤的功能MRI实验研究进展予以综述。     

Diffusion-weighted MR imaging of native and transplanted kidneys

Applications of diffusion-weighted (DW) magnetic resonance (MR) imaging outside the brain have gained increasing importance in recent years. Owing to technical improvements in MR imaging units and faster sequences, the need for noninvasive imaging without contrast medium administration, mainly in patients with renal insufficiency, can be met successfully by applying this technique. DW MR imaging is quantified by the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC), which provides information on diffusion and perfusion simultaneously. By using a biexponential fitting process of the DW MR imaging data, these two entities can be separated, because this type of fitting process can serve as an estimate of both the perfusion fraction and the true diffusion coefficient. DW MR imaging can be applied for functional evaluation of the kidneys in patients with acute or chronic renal failure. Impairment of renal function is accompanied by a decreased ADC. Acute ureteral obstruction leads to perfusion and diffusion changes in the affected kidney, and renal artery stenosis results in a decreased ADC. In patients with pyelonephritis, diffuse or focal changes in signal intensity are seen on the high-b-value images, with increased signal intensity corresponding to low signal intensity on the ADC map. The feasibility and reproducibility of DW MR imaging in patients with transplanted kidneys have already been demonstrated, and initial results seem to be promising for the assessment of allograft deterioration. Overall, performance of renal DW MR imaging, presuming that measurements are of high quality, will further boost this modality, particularly for early detection of diffuse renal conditions, as well as more accurate characterization of focal renal lesions.     

Imaging evaluation of renal function: principles and limitations

The kidney performs multiple functions. Glomerular filtration is the most studied of these functions. In clinical practice, the surgical indication for patients with unilateral uropathy is frequently based on the split renal function as demonstrated by scintigraphy. MRI is not yet validated as a technique but nonetheless offers an interesting non-radiating alternative to achieve both morphological and functional renal evaluation. Recent pulse sequences such as diffusion, arterial spin labeling, and blood oxygenation dependent imaging may also provide additional information. CT and US remain of limited value for the evaluation of renal function.     

功能MRI在肌肉损伤中的应用进展

肌肉损伤的早期确诊有助于临床治疗与预后评估。常规MRI作为评估肌肉损伤的最佳影像方法已广泛应用于临床。而近年发展起来的T2 mapping、扩散加权成像（DWI）及扩散张量成像（DTI）等功能MRI技术能够反映肌肉损伤后病理、生理微观变化,可以无创、定量、客观地评估肌肉损伤的严重程度与再生修复情况,甚至可以早期发现肌肉损伤。就功能MRI在肌肉损伤评估方面的应用进展予以综述。     

空气粉尘污染对大脑影响的MRI研究进展

空气粉尘污染会对大脑结构与功能产生损害。MRI技术可用于观察空气粉尘污染对脑结构与功能的影响,包括基于T1加权的三维磁化强度预备快速梯度回波（T1WI-3D-MPRAGE）、液体衰减反转恢复（FLAIR）、扩散加权成像（DWI）、扩散张量成像（DTI）、血氧水平依赖成像（BOLD）和MR波谱成像（MRS）等序列。MRI不仅能观察到空气粉尘对大脑整体形态、灰白质以及脑深部核团等重要解剖结构的影响,还能反映大脑神经纤维发育、脑网络功能连接和神经元代谢方面的功能改变。就MRI用于空气粉尘污染对大脑影响的研究及进展作一综述。     

Diffusion-weighted MRI of renal cell carcinoma, upper tract urothelial carcinoma, and renal infection: a pictorial review

Diffusion-weighted (DW) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a functional imaging technique that derives image contrast from differences in water molecule diffusion within tissues. DW MRI helps detect and characterize renal and urothelial malignancies, may help in differentiating some benign from malignant renal masses, and can also recognize renal and upper urinary tract infections. Patients precluded from receiving intravenous contrast agents may particularly benefit from this technique.     

产后抑郁症的MRI研究进展

产后抑郁症（PPD）为常见的产后精神障碍,其发病机制尚不清楚。基于体素的形态学分析、基于表面的形态学测量、扩散张量成像、扩散峰度成像、血氧水平依赖功能MRI、MR波谱成像等多种MRI技术已广泛用于探究PPD病人的脑结构、功能和代谢中发生的异常改变,这些技术使得明确PPD的神经生物学机制成为可能,也可为该病的早期诊断和预后判断提供客观的影像依据。就MRI在PPD中的影像学研究进展予以综述。     

MRI of the kidney—state of the art

Ultrasound and computed tomography (CT) are modalities of first choice in renal imaging. Until now, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has mainly been used as a problem-solving technique. MRI has the advantage of superior soft-tissue contrast, which provides a powerful tool in the detection and characterization of renal lesions. The MRI features of common and less common renal lesions are discussed as well as the evaluation of the spread of malignant lesions and preoperative assessment. MR urography technique and applications are discussed as well as the role of MRI in the evaluation of potential kidney donors. Furthermore the advances in functional MRI of the kidney are highlighted.     

Renal and perirenal space involvement in acute pancreatitis: An MRI study

Objectives

To study the prevalence and characteristics of renal and perirenal space involvement and its relation to the severity of acute pancreatitis (AP) using MRI.

Methods

115 patients with AP who underwent MRI with the clinical kidney function test were retrospectively analyzed in this study. MRI sequences included conventional and diffusion weighted imaging (DWI) sequences. The renal and perirenal space involvement in AP was noted on MRI. The renal apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) on DWI was measured for each kidney. The severity of AP on MRI was graded using MR severity index (MRSI). The relationships among the renal and perirenal space involvement on MRI, the renal ADC, MRSI and the results of the kidney function test were analyzed.

Results

In the 115 patients with AP, the renal and perirenal space abnormalities detected included renal parenchymal abnormalities (0.8%), abnormalities of the renal collecting system (2.6%), renal vascular abnormalities (1.7%), thickened renal fascia (99%), perirenal stranding (62%) and perirenal fluid collection (40%). The prevalence of perirenal space abnormalities was correlated with the severity of AP based on MRSI (P < 0.05). The renal ADC values were lower in patients with abnormal kidney function than in those without kidney injury (P < 0.05). The prevalence of kidney function abnormalities was 9.4%, 32% and 100% in mild, moderate, and severe AP cases, respectively (P = 0.00).

Conclusion

Perirenal space involvement is much more than renal parenchymal involvement in AP. The prevalence of perirenal space involvement in AP on MRI has a positive correlation with the severity of AP according to MRSI.     

Arterial spin labeling MR imaging for characterisation of renal masses in patients with impaired renal function: initial experience

Objectives  

To retrospectively evaluate the feasibility of arterial spin labeling (ASL) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for the assessment of vascularity of renal masses in patients with impaired renal function.     

Updates in advanced diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging techniques in the evaluation of prostate cancer

Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (DW-MRI) is considered part of the standard imaging protocol for the evaluation of patients with prostate cancer. It has been proven valuable as a functional tool for qualitative and quantitative analysis of prostate cancer beyond anatomical MRI sequences such as T2-weighted imaging. This review discusses ongoing controversies in DW-MRI acquisition, including the optimal number of b-values to be used for prostate DWI, and summarizes the current literature on the use of advanced DW-MRI techniques. These include intravoxel incoherent motion imaging, which better accounts for the non-mono-exponential behavior of the apparent diffusion coefficient as a function of b-value and the influence of perfusion at low b-values. Another technique is diffusion kurtosis imaging (DKI). Metrics from DKI reflect excess kurtosis of tissues, representing its deviation from Gaussian diffusion behavior. Preliminary results suggest that DKI findings may have more value than findings from conventional DW-MRI for the assessment of prostate cancer.     

Diffusion and perfusion MRI of the lung and mediastinum

With ongoing technical improvements such as multichannel MRI, systems with powerful gradients as well as the development of innovative pulse sequence techniques implementing parallel imaging, MRI has now entered the stage of a radiation-free alternative to computed tomography (CT) for chest imaging in clinical practice. Whereas in the past MRI of the lung was focused on morphological aspects, current MRI techniques also enable functional imaging of the lung allowing for a comprehensive assessment of lung disease in a single MRI exam.Perfusion imaging can be used for the visualization of regional pulmonary perfusion in patients with different lung diseases such as lung cancer, chronic obstructive lung disease, pulmonary embolism or for the prediction of postoperative lung function in lung cancer patients. Over the past years diffusion-weighted MR imaging (DW-MRI) of the thorax has become feasible with a significant reduction of the acquisition time, thus minimizing artifacts from respiratory and cardiac motion. In chest imaging, DW-MRI has been mainly suggested for the characterization of lung cancer, lymph nodes and pulmonary metastases.In this review article recent MR perfusion and diffusion techniques of the lung and mediastinum as well as their clinical applications are reviewed.     

磁共振扩散及灌注成像技术在新生儿急性缺氧缺血性脑病中的应用

缺氧缺血性脑病在新生儿中发病率较高,其致残及致死率居高不下,MRI已成为诊断HIE及评估预后的主要影像检查方法。近年来,一些新型MRI技术,例如扩散加权成像、扩散张量成像、扩散峰度成像、动脉自旋标记成像、体素内不相干运动等在扩散及灌注成像方面有了显著发展,能够更好地反映HIE的病理改变。就MRI扩散及灌注成像新技术在HIE中的成像特点及应用进行综述。     

fMRI评价移植肾功能异常的研究进展

肾移植术后及时准确地评价移植肾功能受损至关重要,并发症的早期准确鉴别有助于及时干预及治疗,从而进一步提高移植肾的长期存活率。目前多种扩散成像、血氧水平依赖成像（BOLD）、动脉自旋标记（ASL）等功能MRI技术已用于评价移植肾功能,可以从肾脏水分子扩散、血氧水平及血流灌注微观角度等方面对肾功能进行评估。就多种功能MRI技术对移植肾功能的评价、肾移植术后并发症的鉴别作一综述,为临床诊断及治疗提供依据及思路。