Patient cost sharing and social inequalities in access to health care in three western European countries

This study evaluates the association between social class and health services use in France, Germany and Spain, three countries with universal health coverage but with different cost-sharing systems. In France, patients share the cost of both physician visits and hospitalization, in Germany they share the cost of hospitalization, and in Spain there is no system of patient cost sharing. The data were obtained from national health surveys carried out in each of these countries during the last decade of the 20th century. We found that persons belonging to a low social class had fewer physician visits than those belonging to a high social class in France, whereas the opposite occurred in Germany and Spain. After adjusting for a measure of the need for health care, the results in France changed little, whereas no significant differences by social class were seen in Germany and Spain. Persons of low social class had more hospital admissions than those of high social class in France and Spain, while no statistically different differences were seen in Germany. After adjusting for need, no significant differences were seen in any of the three countries. Although other factors related with the structure of the health system can not be ruled out, our findings suggest that patient cost sharing reduces the frequency of physician visits and that this decrease is greater in the low social classes, whereas the effect of co-payment for hospitalization on the frequency of hospital admission is not clear.     

Changes in health insurance coverage and health care access as teens with disabilities transition to adulthood

BackgroundPre-ACA, less than 6% of children with disabilities were uninsured, compared with more than 42% of young adults with disabilities ages 19–25. Individuals with disabilities face greater barriers to health care access upon transition into adulthood.ObjectivesWe examined whether the ACA dependent coverage provision and Medicaid expansion improved the transition from pediatric to adult healthcare systems by reducing the gap in insurance coverage and access to care between teens and young adults with disabilities.MethodsUsing cross-sectional data from the 2006–2009 and 2011–2015 National Health Interview Survey (n = 10,136), we estimate the change in insurance coverage and access to care from pre-to post-ACA time periods for teens (ages 13–18) and young adults (ages 19–25) with disabilities in a difference-in-differences model. We completed the same analyses for these groups in Medicaid expansion and non-expansion states.ResultsBoth teens and young adults with disabilities made significant gains in insurance coverage (4.55 and 8.96% point gains respectively, p < .001) and access to care (4.01 and 3.14% points decline in delayed care due to cost, p < .05) under the dependent coverage provision and Medicaid expansion.ConclusionsMedicaid expansion had a greater impact on both insurance coverage and on access to care than did the dependent coverage provision. The benefits of these changes flowed primarily to young adults with disabilities, reducing the gaps in insurance coverage between teens and young adults, and expanding access to care for both groups, providing a more seamless transition from pediatric to adult health care systems, post-ACA.     

Racial and ethnic residential segregation and access to health care in rural areas

This study examined the relationship between racial/ethnic residential segregation and access to health care in rural areas. Data from the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey were merged with the American Community Survey and the Area Health Resources Files. Segregation was operationalized using the isolation index separately for African Americans and Hispanics. Multi-level logistic regression with random intercepts estimated four outcomes. In rural areas, segregation contributed to worse access to a usual source of health care but higher reports of health care needs being met among African Americans (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR]: 1.42, CI: 0.96-2.10) and Hispanics (AOR: 1.25, CI: 1.05-1.49). By broadening the spatial scale of segregation beyond urban areas, findings showed the complex interaction between social and spatial factors in rural areas.     

Equity in access to care in the era of health system reforms in Turkey

ObjectiveTo evaluate access to healthcare from an equity perspective on the way toward Universal Health Coverage in Turkey.MethodsThe country representative data from 2006 to 2013 Turkey Income and Living Conditions Surveys were analyzed. Private household residents aged fifteen and older were asked for self-reported unmet need for medical care in the past twelve months. The dependent variable had three categories: no unmet need, unmet need due to cost, and unmet need due to availability (waiting list and distance problems). Predictors of unmet need were assessed by a multinomial logistic regression analysis.FindingsThe prevalence of unmet need declined between 2006 and 2013. While educational inequalities in declared unmet need also decreased, the income gradient becomes more important. In 2013, controlling for other factors, the propensity to report unmet need was 10 times higher for those in the poorest-income quintile compared to the richest (versus 7 times in 2006).ConclusionOverall access to healthcare has gradually improved in Turkey in the health reform process, but 9% of people still declared unmet need due to cost in 2013, after the implementation of Universal Health Insurance. This was nearly four times the EU average. Unfavourable economic and labour market conditions can be challenges for effective universal health coverage.     

Delayed access to health care and mortality

OBJECTIVE: To measure the relationship between time spent waiting for health care services and patients' mortality. DATA SOURCE: Data on the number of days until the next available appointment at 89 Veterans Affairs (VA) medical centers in 2001 were extracted from a VA administrative database. These facility-level data were merged with individual-level data for a sample of veterans who visited a VA geriatric outpatient clinic in 2001. The merged dataset includes facility-level data on waiting times and individual-level data on demographics, health status (e.g., diagnoses), and mortality. STUDY DESIGN: This was a retrospective observational study using secondary data from administrative sources. The dependent variable was mortality within a 6-month follow-up period. The main explanatory variable of interest was VA facility-level wait times for outpatient visits measured in number of days. Random effects logistic regression models were risk adjusted for prior individual health status and facility-level differences in case mix. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Veterans who visited a VA medical center with facility-level wait times of 31 days or more had significantly higher odds of mortality (odds ratio=1.21, p=0.027) compared with veterans who visited a VA medical center with facility-level wait times of <31 days. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings support the largely assumed association between long wait times for outpatient health care and negative health outcomes, such as mortality. Future research should focus on the causes of long waits for health care (e.g., physician reimbursement levels), the consequences of long waits in other populations, and effective policies to decrease long waits for health care services.     

Insurance + access not equal to health care: typology of barriers to health care access for low-income families

PURPOSE Public health insurance programs have expanded coverage for the poor, and family physicians provide essential services to these vulnerable populations. Despite these efforts, many Americans do not have access to basic medical care. This study was designed to identify barriers faced by low-income parents when accessing health care for their children and how insurance status affects their reporting of these barriers.     

A new index of access to primary care services in rural areas

Objective: To outline a new index of access to primary care services in rural areas that has been specifically designed to overcome weaknesses of using existing geographical classifications.
Methods: Access was measured by four key dimensions of availability, proximity, health needs and mobility. Population data were obtained through the national census and primary care service data were obtained through the Medical Directory of Australia. All data were calculated at the smallest feasible geographical unit (collection districts). The index of access was measured using a modified two-step floating catchment area (2SFCA) method, which incorporates two necessary additional spatial functions (distance-decay and capping) and two additional non-spatial dimensions (health needs and mobility).
Results: An improved index of access, specifically designed to better capture access to primary care in rural areas, is achieved. These improvements come from: 1) incorporation of actual health service data in the index; 2) methodological improvements to existing access measures, which enable both proximity to be differentiated within catchments and the use of varying catchment sizes; and 3) improved sensitivity to small-area variations.
Conclusion: Despite their recognised weaknesses, the Australian government uses broad geographical classifications as proxy measures of access to underpin significant rural health funding programs. This new index of access could provide a more equitable means for resource allocation.
Implications: Significant government funding, aimed at improving health service access inequities in rural areas, could be better targeted by underpinning programs with our improved access measure.     

U.S. medical students' attitudes about patients' access to care

OBJECTIVE: Accessing adequate medical services remains a major struggle for many Americans, but U.S. medical students' beliefs regarding access to care have not been thoroughly examined. METHODS: All medical students in the Class of 2003 at 16 U.S. schools were eligible to complete three questionnaires during their medical training: during freshman orientation, orientation to wards, and their senior year (n=2316, response rate=80.3%). Students responded to three questions about health care provision. RESULTS: Overall, 35% of students strongly agreed that "physicians have a responsibility to take care of patients regardless of their ability to pay;" only 5% disagreed. Only 8% disagreed that "access to basic health care is a fundamental human right." We found the same significant associations with opinions on access as we did with "responsibility to treat," although the associations tended to be stronger for access. Only 10% of students agreed that "Managed care, as it is now delivered, is a good way to deliver health care to the U.S. population." CONCLUSION: Most U.S. medical students support universal access to medical care, though variations in this support, its decline with additional years of medical education, and concerns about managed care are noteworthy, and have policy implications for America's health and health care workforce.     

流动人口基本公共卫生服务可及性及影响因素分析

目的:了解流动人口基本公共卫生服务可及性及其影响因素。方法:以安德森卫生服务利用模型为理论基础,使用"流动人口卫生计生服务流出地监测调查(2014)"数据,采用多水平Logistic回归模型从宏观和微观两个层面,对流动人口基本公共卫生服务可及性及影响因素进行分析。结果:流动人口基本公共卫生服务利用率偏低,其在流出地和流入地均有卫生服务需求;对于全人群适用的健康档案、健康教育和健康体检服务项目的利用,流动人口群体内部存在差异;在同一调查点,流动人口卫生服务利用存在组内聚集性,多水平logistic回归分析发现经济社会发展水平、流出地卫生资源配置水平这两个宏观因素和流动人口的性别、年龄、受教育程度、医疗保险参保情况、流动范围及就业单位性质等个体微观因素,是影响流动人口基本公共卫生服务可及性的主要因素;不同服务项目的影响因素既有共性又有差异。结论:流动人口基本公共卫生服务可及性较差,应强化健康教育和引导干预;不同服务项目利用水平存在差异,应重点关注全人群适用项目和慢性非传染病管理;宏观环境因素和微观个体因素对服务可及性均存在影响,因此在增加服务供给的同时还应从流动人口特征着手,提高其主动性和参与意愿;不同性质就业单位中的流动人口卫生服务利用情况不同,应考虑单位及职业特征对服务利用的影响。     

The 3 A's of the access process to long-term care for elderly: Providers experiences in a multiple case study in the Netherlands

The access process is an important step in the care provision to independently living elderly. Still, little attention has been given to the process of access to long-term care for older clients. Access can be described by three dimensions: availability, affordability and acceptability (three A's).In this paper we address the following question: How do care providers take the three dimensions of access into account for the access process to their care and related service provision to independently living elderly?To answer this question we performed a qualitative study. We used data gathered in a multiple case study in the Netherlands.This study provides insight in the way long-term care organizations organize their access process. Not all dimensions were equally present or acknowledged by the case organizations. The dimension acceptability seems an important dimension in the access process, as shown by the efforts done in building a relationship with their clients, mainly through a strong personal relationship between client and care advisor. In that respect it is remarkable that the case organizations do not structurally evaluate their access process. Availability is compromised by practical issues and organizational choices. Affordability hardly seems an issue. Further research can reveal the underlying factors that influence the three A dimensions.     

Equity and equality in health and health care

This paper explores four definitions of equity in health care: equality of utilization, distribution according to need, equality of access, and equality of health. We argue that the definitions of 'need' in the literature are inadequate and propose a new definition. We also argue that, irrespective of how need and access are defined, the four definitions of equity are, in general, mutually incompatible. In contrast to previous authors, we suggest that equality of health should be the dominant principle and that equity in health care should therefore entail distributing care in such a way as to get as close as is feasible to an equal distribution of health.     

Socioeconomic inequalities in the access to and quality of health care services

OBJECTIVE

To assess the inequalities in access, utilization, and quality of health care services according to the socioeconomic status.

METHODS

This population-based cross-sectional study evaluated 2,927 individuals aged ≥ 20 years living in Pelotas, RS, Southern Brazil, in 2012. The associations between socioeconomic indicators and the following outcomes were evaluated: lack of access to health services, utilization of services, waiting period (in days) for assistance, and waiting time (in hours) in lines. We used Poisson regression for the crude and adjusted analyses.

RESULTS

The lack of access to health services was reported by 6.5% of the individuals who sought health care. The prevalence of use of health care services in the 30 days prior to the interview was 29.3%. Of these, 26.4% waited five days or more to receive care and 32.1% waited at least an hour in lines. Approximately 50.0% of the health care services were funded through the Unified Health System. The use of health care services was similar across socioeconomic groups. The lack of access to health care services and waiting time in lines were higher among individuals of lower economic status, even after adjusting for health care needs. The waiting period to receive care was higher among those with higher socioeconomic status.

CONCLUSIONS

Although no differences were observed in the use of health care services across socioeconomic groups, inequalities were evident in the access to and quality of these services.     

Income-based inequities in access to psychotherapy and other mental health services in Canada and Australia

This paper compares income-based inequities in access to psychotherapy and other mental health services in Canada and Australia, two federal parliamentary systems with sharply contrasting responses to high rates of unmet need. Income-based inequity is measured by need-standardized concentration indices, using comparable data from the Canadian Community Health Survey 2011–2012 and the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being 2007. The results indicate that utilization of psychologist services is more concentrated at higher income levels (i.e. pro-rich) than the other provider groups in both countries, and may be more pro-rich in Canada than in Australia. While the distribution of unmet need for psychotherapy was expected (as a negative indicator of access) to be more concentrated at lower income levels (i.e. pro-poor) under Canada’s two-tier system, unmet need was not more equitable in Australia despite expanded public insurance coverage. As psychotherapy was made universally affordable for the first time in Australia in 2006, a possible backlog effect may have driven up both service utilization and unmet need, particularly among lower-income Australians. The impact of different Medicare co-payment policies also warrants further exploration.     

Social capital, trust in the health-care system and self-rated health: the role of access to health care in a population-based study

This paper investigates the relationship between institutional trust in the health-care system, i.e. an institutional aspect of social capital, and self-rated health, and whether the strength of this association is affected by access to health-care services. The 2004 public health survey in the Scania region of Sweden is a cross-sectional study; a total of 27,963 respondents aged 18-80 years answered a postal questionnaire, which represents 59% of the random sample. Logistic regression model was used to investigate the association between institutional trust and self-rated health. Multivariate analyses of self-rated health were performed in order to investigate the importance of possible confounders (age, country of origin, education, economic stress, generalized trust in other people, and care-seeking behaviour) on this association. A 28.7% proportion of the men and 33.2% of the women reported poor self-rated health. A total of 15.0% and 58.3% of the respondents reported "very high" and "rather high" trust in the health-care system, respectively. Almost one-third of all respondents reported low institutional trust. Respondents born outside Sweden, with low/medium education, low generalized trust and low institutional trust had significantly higher odds ratios of poor self-rated health. Multiple adjustments for age, country of origin, education, economic stress, and horizontal trust had some effect on the significant relationship between institutional trust and poor self-rated health, for both men and women, but the additional introduction of care-seeking behaviour in the model substantially reduced the odds ratios. In conclusion, low trust in the health-care system is associated with poor self-rated health. This association may be partly mediated by "not seeking health care when needed". However, this is a cross-sectional exploratory study and the causality may go in both directions.     

Lessons for achieving health equity comparing Aotearoa/New Zealand and the United States

Aotearoa/New Zealand (Aotearoa/NZ) and the United States (U.S.) suffer inequities in health outcomes by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status. This paper compares both countries’ approaches to health equity to inform policy efforts. We developed a conceptual model that highlights how government and private policies influence health equity by impacting the healthcare system (access to care, structure and quality of care, payment of care), and integration of healthcare system with social services. These policies are shaped by each country’s culture, history, and values. Aotearoa/NZ and U.S. share strong aspirational goals for health equity in their national health strategy documents. Unfortunately, implemented policies are frequently not explicit in how they address health inequities, and often do not align with evidence-based approaches known to improve equity. To authentically commit to achieving health equity, nations should: 1) Explicitly design quality of care and payment policies to achieve equity, holding the healthcare system accountable through public monitoring and evaluation, and supporting with adequate resources; 2) Address all determinants of health for individuals and communities with coordinated approaches, integrated funding streams, and shared accountability metrics across health and social sectors; 3) Share power authentically with racial/ethnic minorities and promote indigenous peoples’ self-determination; 4) Have free, frank, and fearless discussions about impacts of structural racism, colonialism, and white privilege, ensuring that policies and programs explicitly address root causes.     

Subjective unmet need and utilization of health care services in Canada: What are the equity implications?

This study aimed to evaluate whether subjective assessments of unmet need may complement conventional methods of measuring socioeconomic inequity in health care utilization. This study draws on the 2003 Canadian Community Health Survey to develop a conceptual framework for understanding how unmet need arises, to empirically assess the association between utilization and the different types of unmet need (due to waiting times, barriers and personal reasons), and to investigate the effect of adjusting for unmet need on estimates of income-related inequity. The study's findings suggest that a disaggregated approach to analyzing unmet need is required, since the three different subgroups of unmet need that we identify in Canada have different associations with utilization, along with different equity implications. People who report unmet need due to waiting times use more health services than would be expected based on their observable characteristics. However, there is no consistent pattern of utilization among people who report unmet need due to access barriers, or for reasons related to personal choice. Estimates of inequity remain unchanged when we incorporate information on unmet need in the analysis. Subjective assessments of unmet need, namely those that relate to barriers to access, provide additional policy-relevant information that can be used to complement conventional methods of measuring inequity, to better understand inequity, and to guide policy action.     

Ethnic Disparities in Self-Reported Oral Health Status and Access to Care among Older Adults in NYC

There is a growing burden of oral disease among older adults that is most significantly borne by minorities, the poor, and immigrants. Yet, national attention to oral heath disparities has focused almost exclusively on children, resulting in large gaps in our knowledge about the oral health risks of older adults and their access to care. The projected growth of the minority and immigrant elderly population as a proportion of older adults heightens the urgency of exploring and addressing factors associated with oral health-related disparities. In 2008, the New York City Health Indicators Project (HIP) conducted a survey of a representative sample of 1,870 adults over the age of 60 who attended a random selection of 56 senior centers in New York City. The survey included questions related to oral health status. This study used the HIP database to examine differences in self-reported dental status, dental care utilization, and dental insurance, by race/ethnicity, among community-dwelling older adults. Non-Hispanic White respondents reported better dental health, higher dental care utilization, and higher satisfaction with dental care compared to all other racial/ethnic groups. Among minority older adults, Chinese immigrants were more likely to report poor dental health, were less likely to report dental care utilization and dental insurance, and were less satisfied with their dental care compared to all other racial/ethnic groups. Language fluency was significantly related to access to dental care among Chinese immigrants. Among a diverse community-dwelling population of older adults in New York City, we found significant differences by race/ethnicity in factors related to oral health. Greater attention is needed in enhancing the cultural competency of providers, addressing gaps in oral health literacy, and reducing language barriers that impede access to care.     

Socioeconomic status and access to care and the incidence of a heart failure diagnosis in the inpatient and outpatient settings

Purpose

Despite well-documented associations of socioeconomic status with incident heart failure (HF) hospitalization, little information exists on the relationship of socioeconomic status with HF diagnosed in the outpatient (OP) setting.

How adults' access to outpatient physician services relates to the local supply of primary care physicians in the rural southeast

OBJECTIVE: To examine how access to outpatient medical care varies with local primary care physician densities across primary care service areas (PCSAs) in the rural Southeast, for adults as a whole and separately for the elderly and poor. DATA SOURCES: Access data from a 2002 to 2003 telephone survey of 4,311 adults living in 298 PCSAs within 150 rural counties in eight Southeastern states were linked geographically with physician practice location data from the American Medical and American Osteopathic Associations and population data from the U.S. Census. STUDY DESIGN: In a cross-sectional study design, we used a series of logistic regression models to assess how 26 measures of various aspects of access to outpatient physician services varied for subjects arranged into five groups based on the population-per-physician ratios of the PCSAs where they lived. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Among adults as a whole, more individuals reported traveling over 30 minutes for outpatient care in PCSAs with more than 3,500 people per physician than in PCSAs with fewer than 1,500 people per physician (39.1 versus 18.5 percent, p<.001) and more reported travel difficulties. Otherwise, PCSA density of primary care physicians was unrelated to reported barriers to care, unrelated to people's satisfaction with care, and unrelated to indicators of people's use of services. Use rates of six recommended preventive health services varied in no consistent direction with physician densities. Among the elderly, only the proportion traveling over 30 minutes for care was greater in areas with lowest physician densities. Among subjects covered under Medicaid or uninsured, lower local physician densities were associated with longer travel time, difficulties with travel and reaching one's physician by phone, and two areas of dissatisfaction with care. CONCLUSIONS: For adults as a whole in the rural South and for the elderly there, low local primary care physician densities are associated with travel inconvenience but not convincingly with other aspects of access to outpatient care. Access for those insured under Medicaid and the uninsured, however, is in more ways sensitive to local physician densities.