The influence of depressed mood on action tendencies toward alcohol: The moderational role of drinking motives

Background

Research suggests that depressed mood is associated with alcohol-related problems, though its relation with drinking behavior has been inconsistent across studies. Efforts to better understand the link between depressed mood and alcohol use have examined drinking motives as a potentially important moderating variable. The current study sought to examine whether drinking motives moderate the influence of depressed mood on alcohol-related action tendencies. Based on Baker, Morse, and Sherman's (1986) positive and negative reinforcement schema model, two competing moderational hypotheses regarding the influence of depressed mood on appetitive responses for alcohol were tested.

Methods

One hundred and sixty-nine college student drinkers completed assessments of drinking motives and alcohol use. Subjects were exposed to a neutral or depressed mood induction followed by a computerized measure of action tendencies toward alcohol stimuli.

Results

Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine whether the influence of depressed mood on action tendencies toward alcohol was moderated by drinking motives. Results showed that there was a significant interaction between mood induction condition and enhancement motives, such that depressed mood appeared to suppress appetitive responding toward alcohol among those with higher enhancement motives. In contrast, there was no evidence that coping motives moderated the association between mood and appetitive response to alcohol.

Conclusions

These results suggest that inhibiting affect states associated with one's motivational disposition for drinking may result in the devaluation of alcohol. Limitations and implications are discussed.     

The relationship between coping strategies, alcohol expectancies, drinking motives and drinking behaviour

Numerous models have been proposed in an attempt to explain both alcohol use and alcohol abuse. Many of these models propose that drinking behaviour is the result of a complex interplay of cognitive and behavioural variables including coping strategies, alcohol expectancies and motives for drinking. However few studies have explored how these elements may work together to predict drinking. The current study proposed a mediational model of alcohol use in which coping strategies are related to alcohol expectancies, which in turn are related to drinking motives. Drinking motives were then viewed as proximal predictors of drinking behaviour. There were 454 participants (55.78% female) who completed self-report questionnaires assessing the above constructs. Approximately half the participants completed the questionnaires online, while the others completed the paper and pencil versions of the same measures. Findings generally supported the hypothesised model. The relationship between avoidant coping and drinking behaviour was mediated by alcohol expectancies of increased confidence and tension reduction, which in turn were related to drinking motives. As expected, drinking motives were positively related to drinking behaviour. Negative expectancies were also directly related to drinking behaviour. The results are discussed in light of cognitive models of drinking, and implications for prevention and early intervention of alcohol-use problems.     

Selected impulsivity facets with alcohol use/problems: the mediating role of drinking motives

Impulsivity is associated with alcohol use and related problems, yet limited research has examined the different facets of impulsivity with these outcomes. This study aimed to examine whether sensation seeking, positive urgency, and negative urgency, as separate constructs, would differentially predict alcohol use/problems, and to investigate whether specific drinking motives would mediate these relationships. Self-reported data from an online survey of undergraduate drinkers (n=317) was used in the current study. Findings indicate that sensation seeking and the urgency traits represent unique personality constructs in the prediction of alcohol use/problems, and should be considered separately in future research and when designing prevention and intervention strategies.     

Behavioral economic approaches to reduce college student drinking

There is a need for novel, theory-based approaches to reduce heavy drinking on college campuses. Behavioral economics has guided basic laboratory research on drug administration for over 30 years and has recently been applied to human substance use in naturalistic and clinical settings. This paper provides an introduction to behavioral economics, reviews applications of behavioral economics to college student drinking, and describes prevention and intervention strategies that are consistent with behavioral economic theory. Behavioral economic theory predicts that college students' decisions about drinking are related to the relative availability and price of alcohol, the relative availability and price of substance-free alternative activities, and the extent to which reinforcement from delayed substance-free outcomes is devalued relative to the immediate reinforcement associated with drinking. Measures of problem severity are based on resource allocation towards alcohol and the relative value of alcohol compared to other reinforcers. Policy and individual level prevention approaches that are consistent with behavioral economic theory are discussed, including strategies for increasing the behavioral and monetary price of alcohol, increasing engagement in rewarding alternatives to substance use, and counteracting student drinkers' tendency to overvalue immediate relative to delayed rewards.     

Situational and respondent-level motives for drinking and alcohol-related aggression: A multilevel analysis of drinking events in a sample of Canadian University students

Situational drinking motives (i.e., motives specific to the drinking situation) as well as respondent-level drinking motives (i.e., usual drinking motives across drinking situations) were examined in terms of their relations with aggression experienced by university students. Secondary, multi-level analyses were conducted on the Canadian Campus Survey (CCS), a national survey of 40 Canadian universities conducted between March 1 and April 30, 2004 (N = 6 282). For their three most recent drinking events, students reported their motive for drinking (i.e., situational motive) and whether they had an argument/fight. Respondent-level drinking motives were computed by averaging motives across drinking events. Drinking to cope at the situational-level increased the likelihood of aggression. Respondent-level enhancement motives also increased the risk of aggression. Aesthetic motives were important at both situational and respondent levels decreasing the risk for alcohol-related aggression. Gender did not moderate these relations. These results suggest that prevention programming might benefit from a focus on altering drinking motives, or their underlying causes, in order to reduce alcohol-related aggression among young adults.     

Shared genetic contributions to early-onset drinking and drinking to cope motives

Introduction

Recent evidence from empirical studies indicates that individuals who begin drinking at an early age may be more likely to use alcohol to cope with negative mood states and stress; however, the mechanisms underlying this association are unclear. One possibility is that early drinking directly increases risk for drinking to cope (DTC). Alternatively, the association between early drinking and DTC may be indirect, attributable to overlapping genetic or environmental factors. No prior genetically informative study has investigated the sources of covariation underlying the early-onset drinking-DTC association.

Method

Early-onset drinking (before age 15) was assessed using structured clinical interviews in a sample of 7130 male and female participants aged 19–56 years from the Virginia Adult Twin Study of Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders (VATSPSUD, Kendler &; Prescott, 2006). DTC was assessed using the mood management scale of the alcohol use inventory (Horn &; Wanberg, 1983). The sources of the covariation between early first drink and DTC were estimated using bivariate twin modeling.

Results

Early drinking onset was reported by 28% of males and 16% of females and was associated with significantly higher DTC scores (phenotypic correlation: males = .19, females = .22). Results from bivariate twin models indicated that the association between early-onset drinking and DTC was completely attributable to shared genetic factors that contribute to both behaviors.

Conclusions

Greater DTC among early-onset drinkers may not reflect a direct causal process, as shared biological pathways may explain vulnerability to stress-related drinking seen among early-onset drinkers.     

Child maltreatment,alcohol use and drinking consequences among male and female college students: An examination of drinking motives as mediators

Although the relationship between child maltreatment and alcohol use and drinking problems is well established, the mechanisms involved in this relationship remain largely unknown and research has focused primarily on women. Using the Modified Drinking Motives Questionnaire-Revised (M-DMQ-R; Grant, Stewart, O'Connor, Blackwell & Conrod, 2007), drinking motives were examined as mediators in the relationship between childhood maltreatment and alcohol consumption and consequences among male and female college student drinkers (N = 218, 60.6% women). Participants completed questionnaires assessing child maltreatment, drinking motives, alcohol consumption and alcohol consequences. Enhancement motives in particular mediated the relationship between childhood abuse and alcohol consequences for men, whereas coping-depression motives mediated this relationship for women. Implications of these findings for alcohol interventions and future research are discussed, along with limitations of the present study.     

Protective behavioral strategies mediate the effect of drinking motives on alcohol use among heavy drinking college students: gender and race differences

Objective

This study examined the extent to which protective behavioral strategies (PBS) mediated the influence of drinking motives on alcohol consumption, and if these hypothesized relationships were corroborated across subsamples of gender and race.

Method

Online surveys were completed by 1592 heavy drinking college undergraduates from two universities (49.9% male and 50.1% female; 76.9% Caucasian and 23.1% Asian). Independent samples t-tests compared males and females as well as Caucasians and Asians on measures of drinking motives, PBS use, and alcohol consumption, and structural equation models examined the mediating role of PBS.

Results

Consistent with predictions, t-tests revealed that males reported greater levels of consumption than females, but females reported greater use of PBS than males. Caucasians reported greater consumption levels, endorsed higher enhancement motives, and higher PBS related to serious harm reduction, but Asians endorsed higher coping and conformity motives, and PBS focused on stopping/limiting drinking. In multiple-sample SEM analyses, PBS were shown to largely mediate the relationship between motives and consumption in all demographic subsamples.

Conclusions

Findings indicate that PBS use leads to reductions in drinking despite pre-established drinking motives, hence pointing to the potential value of standalone PBS skills training interventions in lowering alcohol use among diverse groups of heavy drinking college students.     

Impulsivity and drinking motives predict problem behaviours relating to alcohol use in University students

Aims

This study used a four-factor model of impulsivity to investigate inter-relationships between alcohol consumption, impulsivity, motives for drinking and the tendency to engage in alcohol-related problem behaviours.

Methods

400 University students aged 18–25 completed an online survey consisting of the following measures: Urgency, Premeditation, Perseverance and Sensation Seeking Scale (UPPS) to measure impulsivity; Student Alcohol Questionnaire to assess drinking quantity, frequency and rates of problem behaviours; Drinking Motives Questionnaire to assess motives for drinking.

Results

The majority of the sample (94.5%) drank alcohol at least monthly. Path analysis revealed direct effects of urgency, sensation seeking and premeditation, as well as the quantity of alcohol consumed, on the tendency to engage in risky behaviours with negative consequences. The effect of urgency was mediated by drinking for coping motives and by a combined effect of drinking for social motives and consumption of wine or spirits. Conversely the effect of sensation seeking was mediated by the quantity of alcohol consumed, irrespective of drink type, and the effect of premeditation was mediated by the consumption of wine and spirits, in combination with enhancement motives.

Conclusions

Sensation seeking, urgency and lack of premeditation are related to different motives for drinking and also demonstrate dissociable relationships with the consumption of specific types of alcohol (beer, wine and spirits) and the tendency to engage in risky behaviours associated with alcohol consumption. Screening for high levels of urgency and for severe drinking consequences may be useful predictors of alcohol-related problems in UK University students aged 18 to 25 years.     

Drinking to enhance and to cope: a daily process study of motive specificity

Objective

Daily process studies of internal drinking motives have not examined motive specificity, i.e., whether theoretically plausible trait and situational antecedents differ in their ability to predict the extent to which alcohol consumption on any given day is motivated by coping or enhancement.

Method

University students (N = 81) completed trait measures of coping and enhancement-motivated drinking (trait CM and EM), sensation seeking, and conscientiousness, and then completed a 14-day online diary assessing daily completion of tasks, daily alcohol use, and (on days when alcohol was consumed) the extent to which drinking was motivated by coping or enhancement (daily CM and EM).

Results

Hierarchical linear models revealed unique situational and trait antecedents of daily CM and EM. In the daily EM drinking model, main effects of daily positive affect (b = 0.11, p < 0.05), trait EM (b = 2.88, p < 0.01), and trait sensation seeking (b = 0.36, p < 0.01) were qualified by cross-level interactions between daily task accomplishment and trait conscientiousness (b = 0.03, p < 0.01), and daily task accomplishment and trait sensation seeking (b = 0.03, p < 0.01). In the daily CM drinking model, main effects of daily positive affect (b = − 0.08, p < 0.05), daily negative affect (b = 0.13, p < 0.05), and trait CM (b = 4.40, p < 0.01), were qualified by cross-level interactions between trait CM and daily positive affect (b = − 0.12, p < 0.05), trait CM and daily negative affect (b = 0.18, p < 0.01), and trait conscientiousness and daily task accomplishment (b = 0.01, p < 0.01).

Conclusion

Our results replicated and extended Cooper et al.'s (1995) findings on the differential roles of sensation seeking and negative affect in CM and EM drinking at the daily level, and call into question the view that drinking motives should be solely conceptualized as individual difference variables. Theoretical and applied implications of the findings are discussed.     

College alcohol citations result in modest reductions in student drinking

College students who are cited for violating campus alcohol policy are often fined or sanctioned to complete an intervention or public service. Although some interventions have been found efficacious for mandated students, it is possible that being cited for an alcohol-related incident alone may be sufficient to reduce alcohol consumption. The purpose of this study was to investigate the course of alcohol consumption patterns following a citation for an alcohol policy violation. Participants were college students (N = 445) who received a citation for a campus alcohol policy violation at a small northeastern liberal arts college. Participants completed a Timeline Follow-Back indicating their daily alcohol use 2 weeks prior to the citation through 2 weeks after the citation. Results indicated that participants decreased their alcohol use following a citation event. However, the reduction in alcohol consumption was modest, suggesting that the citation event itself has a very temporary influence on the drinking of college students. Additional research is needed to reconcile these findings with those from other studies that found a more meaningful citation effect.     

The differential impact of relational health on alcohol consumption and consequences in first year college women

The Relational Health Indices (RHI) is a relatively new measure that assesses the strength of relationships. It has been found that relational health has a protective factor for women, such that it enhances positive experiences and limits negative ones. The current study is the first to use the RHI to examine the effect of relational health on alcohol consumption and alcohol consequences. First year college women were given questionnaires assessing relational health, drinking motives, and alcohol use in their first few months at a mid-sized, private university. Due to the social nature of college settings, it was predicted that relational health would moderate the relationship between motives and alcohol consumption. Further, due to the protective factor of relational health, it was predicted that relational health would attenuate the relationship between drinking and negative consequences. These hypotheses were supported. Relational health, moderated the relationship between both social and coping drinking motives and drinking, such that women with strong relational health towards their peers and community who also had high social and coping motives, drank more than those with weaker relationships. Paradoxically, relational health also moderated the relationship between drinking and consequences such that heavy drinking women with strong relational health experienced fewer negative consequences than women with weaker relational health. Results indicate that although relational health is associated with an increase in alcohol consumption, it may also serve as a protective factor for alcohol-related negative consequences. Future research and interventions may seek to de-link the relational health-drinking connection in the college student environment.     

Brief motivational intervention and alcohol expectancy challenge with heavy drinking college students: a randomized factorial study

This study is the first reported test of the unique and combined effects of Brief Motivational Intervention (BMI) and Alcohol Expectancy Challenge (AEC) with heavy drinking college students. Three hundred and thirty-five participants were randomly assigned in a 2x2 factorial design to either: BMI, AEC, BMI and AEC, and assessment only conditions. Follow-ups occurred at 1, 3, and 6 months. Unconditional latent curve analyses suggested that alcohol use (Q-F), heavy episodic drinking, and alcohol problems were best modeled as quadratic effects. BMI produced significant decreases in Q-F, heavy drinking, and problems, while AEC produced significant decreases in Q-F and heavy drinking. There was no evidence of an additive effect of combining the interventions. Intervention effects decayed somewhat for BMI and completely for AEC over 6 months. Multi-group analyses suggested similar intervention effects for men and women. BMI effects on alcohol problems were mediated by perceived norms. These findings extend previous research with BMI and AEC but do not support their utility as a combined preventive intervention to reduce collegiate alcohol abuse.     

Perceptions of alcohol policy and drinking behavior: Results of a latent class analysis of college student drinkers

Objective

The purpose of this study was to extend the limited research on college student support for alcohol control policies by using a latent class analysis to examine the shared characteristics of drinking students who support or oppose such policies.

Methods

We used data from a sample of 2393 students drawn from a larger study on high risk drinking at a mid-western university. Data was collected between October 2005 and May 2007. We conducted a latent class analysis to identify sub-groups of drinking students based on relevant variables.

Results

The results of the latent class analysis yielded a model which could correctly classify 90% of the students taking the survey into one of four “classes” based upon their response to four items on the questionnaire.

Conclusions

Interventions would benefit from approaches that target both student perceptions and specific policies that are most conducive to student support and engagement.     

Incapacitated rape and alcohol use: a prospective analysis

This study examined timing of alcohol-related sexual assaults (incapacitated rape) in relation to both alcohol consumption and alcohol-related negative consequences. The sample was drawn from a randomly selected pool of college students across three campuses (n=1238) followed over a three year time period. 91% of students never experienced an incapacitated rape, 2% reported an incapacitated rape prior to the first assessment point (n=30), and 6% reported one over the course of the study (n=76). Results indicated that incapacitated rape was associated with higher alcohol use and more negative consequences in the years prior to the assault. Incapacitated rape was also associated with higher alcohol use and more negative consequences during the year in which the rape took place and subsequent years, with highest rates measured for the year of the rape. These results suggest alcohol use can function as both risk factor and consequence of sexual victimization.     

Discrimination and alcohol-related problems among college students: a prospective examination of mediating effects

Background

Discrimination is a risk factor for health-risk behaviors, including alcohol abuse. Far less is known about the mechanisms through which discrimination leads to alcohol-related problems, particularly during high-risk developmental periods such as young adulthood.

Methods

The present study tested a mediation model using prospective data from a large, diverse sample of 1539 college students. This model hypothesized that discrimination would be associated with established cognitive (positive alcohol expectancies) and affective (negative affect and coping motives) risk factors for alcohol-related problems, which would account for the prospective association between discrimination and alcohol problems.

Results

Structural equation modeling indicated that discrimination was associated cross-sectionally with negative affect and more coping motives for drinking, but not with greater alcohol expectancies. Coping motives mediated the prospective relationship between discrimination and alcohol-related problems. Additionally, results indicated significant indirect effects from discrimination to alcohol-related problems through negative affect and coping motives. These associations were evident for multiple groups confronting status-based discrimination, including women, racial/ethnic minorities, and lesbian/gay/bisexual individuals.

Conclusions

This study identified potential affective mechanisms linking discrimination to alcohol-related problems. Results suggest several avenues for prevention and intervention efforts with individuals from socially disadvantaged groups.     

Alexithymia and alcohol consumption: the mediating effects of drinking motives

The association between alexithymia and alcohol consumption has been well documented. However, little research has investigated the mechanisms behind the association. In the present study, the relationship between alexithymia, drinking motives and alcohol consumption was examined in a group of social (non-problem) drinkers. In a cross-sectional study, 862 participants completed the Toronto Alexithymia Scale, Drinking Motives Questionnaire, and provided alcohol consumption information. Regression analyses revealed that alexithymia predicts alcohol consumption. Formal mediation analyses demonstrated that this relationship was fully mediated by social, enhancement and coping drinking motives, and partially mediated by conformity. Drinking motives may represent one mechanism to explain the association between alexithymia and alcohol consumption.     

DRD2/ANKK1 TaqI A genotype moderates the relationship between alexithymia and the relative value of alcohol among male college binge drinkers

Binge drinking remains prevalent on college campuses (particularly among males), and a behavioral economic conceptualization of alcohol use provides novel insight into this problem. Further understanding also comes from identifying personality and genetic vulnerabilities associated with problem drinking among male college students. The present study hypothesized that DRD2/ANKK1 TaqI A (rs1800497) genotype would moderate the relationship between alexithymia and an alcohol purchase task (APT) among male college binge drinkers. Specifically, among individuals with at least 1 A1 allele (A1 +), greater alexithymia would be related to higher breakpoint (the point at which consumption is 0), O_max (maximum expenditure on consumption), P_max (price at which maximum expenditure occurs), intensity (consumption at the lowest price), and lesser elasticity (sensitivity to increasing price). Secondary analyses aimed to replicate APT associations with problematic drinking (AUDIT) and alcohol-related problems (RAPI). Participants were 120 male European-American college student binge drinkers (AUDIT: M = 10.33, SD = 4.41). Five Bonferroni-corrected moderation models were tested using APT indices as the criteria, alexithymia as the predictor, and DRD2/ANKK1 TaqI A1 allele presence as the moderator. Results indicated that, in A1 + individuals, greater alexithymia predicted lesser elasticity. Findings were not significant in A1 − individuals. APT intensity was positively correlated with AUDIT total; however, no other significant relationships were found. This suggests that possession of the A1 allele interacts with hypoemotionality to predict a novel index of problem drinking. Results support the notion that college campuses would benefit from behavioral economic approaches to reduce binge drinking.     

Development and initial validation of a measure of motives for pregaming in college students

Objective

Pregaming (i.e., drinking alcohol prior to going out) is a common and risky drinking practice on college campuses. Yet, little is known about what motivates students to pregame as no motives measure exists specifically targeting pregaming. The current study describes the development and initial validation of a measure to assess motives for pregaming and to evaluate associations between these motives and pregaming behavior.

Method

In a multi-stage process using three different college samples, both qualitative (i.e., focus groups) and quantitative methods were used to derive the Pregaming Motives Measure (PGMM). After initial item generation (Stage I: N = 43, 74% male) and refinement with exploratory factor analysis (Stage II: N = 206, 61% male), a confirmatory factor analysis was performed to establish the structure of the PGMM (Stage III: N = 321, 34% male). The pattern of associations of the derived factors, pregaming behavior, and general drinking motives was explored to provide evidence for initial construct validity. Last, the indirect effect of pregaming motives on alcohol problems via pregaming behavior was assessed.

Results

Findings indicated that the PGMM differed both in content from general drinking motives and that the PGMM items generated load on factors labeled Inebriation/Fun, Instrumental, and Social Ease. Moreover, the Inebriation/Fun and Instrumental motives were significantly associated with pregaming behavior. PGMM motives also both directly and indirectly predicted alcohol-related consequences.

Conclusions

Findings corroborate other data on pregaming, suggesting that this behavior may be driven by desires for quick inebriation and conviviality and related to problems only via increased drinking. The PGMM offers targeted assessment of pregaming and other social drinking behavior that can lead to deleterious outcomes.     

Assessing college students' perceptions of tolerance to alcohol using social cues: The Social Tolerance Index

Increased tolerance to alcohol is considered a risk factor for developing future problems. While college students are considered a high-risk population in relation to alcohol use it is suggested that tolerance operates differently in this population than in chronic drinking samples. Individuals' perceptions about their level of tolerance measured by social cues and comparisons to peers may influence drinking behavior. The present study evaluated the Social Tolerance Index (STI), a measure designed to examine perceptions about personal tolerance to alcohol using social cues in college students. College students (n = 177) completed measures of social tolerance, social desirability, drinking rates, and demographic information at baseline, 2-week, and 4-week follow-up assessments to assess test–retest reliability. A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the STI. In addition, tests of discriminant, construct and predictive validities were also conducted. The STI demonstrated good reliability and validity for use in a college student population.