Suckling in litters with different sizes,and early and late swimming exercise differentially modulates anxiety-like behavior,memory and electrocorticogram potentiation after spreading depression in rats

Objective: Analyze the hypothesis that swimming exercise, in rats suckled under distinct litter sizes, alters behavioral parameters suggestive of anxiety and recognition memory, and the electrocorticogram potentiation that occurs after the excitability-related phenomenon that is known as cortical spreading depression (CSD).

Methods: Male Wistar rats were suckled in litters with six or 12 pups (L₆ and L₁₂ groups). Animals swam at postnatal days (P) 8–23, or P60–P75 (early-exercised or late-exercised groups, respectively), or remained no-exercised. Behavioral tests (open field – OF and object recognition – OR) were conducted between P77 and P80. Between P90 and P120, ECoG was recorded for 2 hours. After this ‘baseline’ recording, CSD was elicited every 30 minutes over the course of 2 hours.

Results: Early swimming enhanced the number of entries and the percentage of time in the OF-center (P?<?0.05). In animals that swam later, this effect occurred in the L6 group only. Compared to the corresponding sedentary groups, OR-test showed a better memory in the L6 early exercised rats, and a worse memory in all other groups (P?<?0.05). In comparison to baseline values, ECoG amplitudes after CSD increased 14–43% for all groups (P?<?0.05). In the L₆ condition, early swimming and late swimming, respectively, reduced and enhanced the magnitude of the post-CSD ECoG potentiation in comparison with the corresponding L₆ no-exercised groups (P?<?0.05).

Discussion: Our data suggest a differential effect of early- and late-exercise on the behavioral and electrophysiological parameters, suggesting an interaction between the age of exercise and the nutritional status during lactation.     

Hypercaloric high-lipid diet and brain development: Effects on cortical spreading depression in adult rats

Abstract

Nutritional conditions early in life constitute one of the environmental factors that can influence brain electrophysiology, as evaluated through the phenomenon denominated as cortical spreading depression (CSD).

Objective

To evaluate the effects of hypercaloric diet intake in different phases of life on CSD features in adult rats.

Methods

Newborn Wistar rats were suckled by dams fed a high-lipid (cafeteria) hypercaloric diet during the lactation period. After suckling, part of the pups remained in the high-lipid diet until the end of the experiment in adulthood (group ‘full-life’ FL), and the other part received the control (lab chow) diet (group L). A third group received the hypercaloric diet only at adulthood (group Ad). When the animals reached 90–93 days of life, CSD was recorded.

Results

CSD propagation velocities (in mm/minute) and CSD amplitudes (in mV) were reduced (P < 0.05) in the groups L (2.77 ± 0.07 and 7.1 ± 2.0 for velocity and amplitude, respectively) and FL (3.05 ± 0.17 and 8.5 ± 1.9), but not in the group Ad (3.36 ± 0.11 and 10.7 ± 2.0), in comparison with a control group (C), fed the lab chow diet during the entire life (3.52 ± 0.18 and 10.8 ± 2.2).

Discussion

CSD velocity changes observed in adulthood were associated with the hypercaloric dietary treatment during brain development, constituting evidence in favor of permanent or at least long-lasting electrophysiological effects related to the prevailing nutritional status during the period of brain growth spurt.     

Differential effects of physical exercise and l-arginine on cortical spreading depression in developing rats

Abstract

Objective

We investigated the effect of early-in-life administration of l-arginine, combined with physical exercise, on cortical spreading depression (CSD) in young and adult rats.

Methods

l-arginine (300 mg/kg/day, n = 40) or distilled water (vehicle, n = 40) was given to the rats during postnatal days 7–35 by gavage. Physical exercise (treadmill) was carried out during postnatal days 15–35 in half of the animals in each gavage condition described above. The other half (non-exercised) was used for comparison. When the animals reached 35–45 days (young groups) or 90–120 days of age (adult) CSD was recorded on two cortical points during 4 hours and CSD propagation velocity was calculated.

Results

l-arginine-treated + exercised rats had increased body weight, but not brain weight, in adult age compared to l-arginine + non-exercised ones (P < 0.05). In both young and adult animals, l-arginine increased, whereas exercise decreased the CSD propagation velocity. Analysis of variance revealed a significant interaction between gavage treatment and age (P < 0.001), and also between gavage treatment and exercise (P = 0.004), but not between age and exercise. An additional control group of young rats, treated with 300 mg/kg of l-histidine, presented CSD velocities comparable to the corresponding water-treated controls, suggesting that the CSD acceleration seen in the l-arginine group was an l-arginine-specific effect, rather than an effect due to a non-specific amino acid imbalance.

Discussion

l-arginine and exercise affect CSD differentially (l-arginine accelerated, while exercise decelerated CSD), and both effects did interact. Probably, they depend on developmental plasticity changes associated with the treatments.     

Neonatal treatment with ovarian hormones and suckling among distinct litter sizes: Differential effects on recognition memory and spreading depression at adulthood

Objectives: Ovarian hormones (OH) and early malnutrition may affect the developing brain, with repercussions on behavioral and excitability-dependent processes. However, the possible synergistic effects of both factors have not been analyzed. In this study, we investigated the effect of treatment in early life with OH and suckling among distinct litter sizes on recognition memory, anxiety behavior, and the excitability-dependent phenomenon known as cortical spreading depression (CSD).

Methods: Female Wistar rats were suckled under favorable and unfavorable lactation, corresponding to litters with 9 and 15 pups (L₉ and L₁₅ groups, respectively). From postnatal days (P) 7 to 21, the animals received 50?µg/kg of β-estradiol or progesterone. From P80 to P84, we tested behavioral reactions. From P90 to P120, we analyzed CSD parameters.

Results: Compared with the corresponding L₉ groups, the OH-treated L₁₅ groups performed worse in recognition memory tasks. No intergroup difference in the anxiety parameters was observed. Compared with naive and vehicle-treated controls, OH-treated groups displayed higher CSD velocities and amplitudes and shorter CSD durations.

Discussion: Early treatment with OH facilitates recognition memory and CSD, and in association with unfavorable lactation (L₁₅) impaired recognition memory, but not anxiety behavior, in the adult brain. OH treatment and L₁₅ lactation condition seem to interact regarding OH action on memory, but not on CSD. Data suggest a long-lasting differential effect that might be related to the lasting hormonal action on brain excitability. We postulate and discuss the possibility that these findings may be implicated in human neurological diseases.     

Brain effects of the lectin from Canavalia ensiformis in adult rats previously suckled in favorable and unfavorable conditions: A spreading depression and microglia immunolabeling study

Abstract

Objective

To evaluate in adult rats, previously suckled under favorable and unfavorable conditions, the brain electrophysiological and microglial effects of the treatment early in life with the lectin (ConA) from Canavalia ensiformis.

Methods

Male Wistar newborn rats (n = 89) were suckled under favorable or unfavorable conditions, represented by litters with 6–7 pups or 12–14 pups (groups N6 and N12, respectively). From postnatal days 5–24, they were treated intraperitoneally with 1 or 10 mg/kg ConA (groups L1 and L10, respectively), or with saline solution (group Sal), or no treatment (group Naïve). At 90–120 days of age, cortical spreading depression (CSD) was recorded at two parietal points for 4 hours, and CSD parameters (velocity of propagation and amplitude and duration of the DC slow potential change) were measured. Fixative-perfused brain sections were reacted with anti-Iba1 antibodies to quantify immunolabeled microglia.

Results

Compared with the control groups, ConA-treated animals dose-dependently presented with reduced CSD propagation velocities and increased amplitude and duration of the CSD slow potential change. Microglia Iba-1 immunoreactivity was lower in both nutritional groups treated with ConA, in comparison with the control groups. The CSD hemisphere presented with higher immunoreactivity compared with the CSD-free hemisphere.

Discussion

Attenuation in CSD propagation and microglia reaction was associated in adulthood with ConA treatment during brain development, indicating that the lectin can affect the electrophysiological and microglial development, and suggesting long-lasting protective action of the lectin on the rat brain, which is not impeded by the unfavorable suckling condition.     

Neonatal administration of goat whey modulates memory and cortical spreading depression in rats previously suckled under different litter sizes: Possible role of sialic acid

Objectives: Goat whey, a usually discarded byproduct from goat cheese manufacturing, is a good source of sialic acid (SA), an oligosaccharide that is involved in processes such as memory and brain excitability. Here, we investigated in rats the effect of dried goat whey (DGW) on memory and the brain excitability-dependent phenomenon known as cortical spreading depression (CSD). We also provide evidence for the involvement of SA in this effect. In addition, we tested animals under unfavorable suckling conditions to evaluate whether nutritional deficiency would modulate DGW action.

Methods: Wistar rats were suckled in litters with 9 and 15 pups (groups L₉ and L₁₅, respectively). From postnatal (P) days 7–14, the animals received per gavage 17.45?g of DGW/kg/day, or SA (20?mg/kg/day or 100?mg/kg/day). At P28-30, we tested the animals’ memory in the object recognition paradigm. At P35-45 we recorded CSD and analyze its velocity of propagation, amplitude, and duration.

Results: In the object recognition test, the L₁₅ DGW-treated rats performed better than the L₁₅-controls. The L₁₅ rats displayed higher CSD velocities compared with L₉ groups. The DGW and SA groups exhibited higher CSD velocity than the naïve- and saline-treated controls, regardless the lactation status (P?Discussion: Our results documented a novel effect of DGW on memory and CSD. SA dose-dependently facilitated CSD, suggesting its involvement on the DGW action. DGW is considered a potential supplement to improve brain development and function in malnourished children, and this shall be further translationally investigated.     

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) oil during pregnancy and lactation influences brain excitability and cortex oxidative status in the rat offspring

Objectives: To evaluate how safflower oil (SFO) influences brain electrophysiology and cortical oxidative status in the offspring, mothers received a diet with SFO during brain development period.

Methods: Beginning on the 14th day of gestation and throughout lactation, rats received safflower (safflower group – SG) or soybean oil (control group – CG) in their diet. At 65 days old, cortical spreading depression (CSD) and cortex oxidative status were analyzed in the offspring.

Results: SG presented reduction of the CSD velocity as compared to the CG (SG: 3.24?±?0.09; CG: 3.37?±?0.07?mm/min). SFO reduced levels of lipid peroxidation by 39.4%. SG showed the following increases: glutathione-S-transferase, 40.8% and reduced glutathione, 34.3%. However, SFO decreased superoxide dismutase by 40.4% and catalase by 64.1%. To control for interhemispheric effects, since CSD was recorded only in the right cortex, we evaluated the oxidative status in both sides of the cortex; no differences were observed.

Discussion: Data show that when SFO is consumed by the female rats during pregnancy and lactation, the offspring present long-term effects on brain electrophysiology and cortical oxidative state. The present study highlights the relevance of understanding the SFO intake of pregnant and lactating mammals.     

2010年中国老年人业余锻炼及静态行为调查

目的了解中国≥60岁老年人业余锻炼及静态行为。方法采用多阶段分层随机抽样方法在全国疾病监测点系统及新疆生产建没兵团农二师,利用包含全球身体活动问卷(GPAQ)的调查问卷,通过面对面调查收集≥18岁成年人慢性非传染性疾病(慢病)相关危险因素及业余时间中、高强度休闲性身体活动的频率和持续时间等身体活动信息。本研究利用其中15193名>60岁调鱼对象的信息,对老年人业余锻炼及静态行为进行分析。对样本进行复杂加权后,计算从不锻炼率、每周参与至少3 d且每天至少30 min中等强度或相当量活动比例(经常锻炼率)和每周参与至少5 d且每天至少30 min中等强度或相当量活动比例(积极锻炼率)以及总静态行为时间等指标。结果中国≥60岁老年人从不锻炼率为85.4%(95%CI：83.5%～87.3%),经常锻炼率为12.o%(95%CI：10.o%～1 3.1%),积极锻炼率为9.9%(95%CI：8.5%~11.3%)。其中城市人群经常锻炼率(23.8%,95%ci：20.7%.26.9%)和积极锻炼率(20.5%,95%ci：17.9%一23.1%)均明显高于农村。随教育水平、家庭经济收入增加,老年人经常锻炼率和积极锻炼率均上升,各组间差异有统计学意义。老年入平均每日总静态行为时间为42(95%Cl：4.1～4.4)h,平均每日看电视时间为105.1(95%CI：100.6~109.6)min。城市地区、教育水平及家庭经济收入均较高的老年人,每日总静态行为和电视时间均更长.差异有统计学意义。结论中国老年人业余时间参与锻炼的水平较低,尤其是农村地区老年人的锻炼情况更值得关注。     

The facilitating effect of unfavorable lactation on the potentiation of electrocorticogram after spreading depression in awake and anesthetized adult rats

Objectives: Cortical spreading depression (CSD) is a brain excitability-related phenomenon that can be affected by unfavorable conditions of lactation and by anesthetic agents. We have previously demonstrated that after CSD the electrocorticogram (ECoG) amplitude increases significantly (ECoG potentiation). Here, we investigated this potentiation in awake and anesthetized adult rats that were previously suckled among different lactation conditions.

Methods: Newborn rats were suckled in litters with 6 pups or 12 pups (L₆ or L₁₂ condition, respectively). At adulthood, we evaluated the ECoG potentiation after CSD at two cortical points (one point near, and another remote to the CSD-eliciting site). The amplitude of the ECoG waves was averaged with the support of an algorithm implemented in Matlab? software. In both L₆ and L₁₂ condition, awake animals were compared with anesthetized groups that received either tribromoethanol- or urethane?+?chloralose-anesthesia.

Results: L₁₂ rats presented significantly lower body- and brain weights than L₆ rats (P?6 groups presented with ECoG potentiation (P?12 groups displayed ECoG potentiation in both near (67.0% and 55.0%) and remote points (37.0% and 20.0%), in comparison with the baseline values (before CSD).

Discussion: The results suggest a facilitating effect of unfavorable lactation on the potentiation of ECoG after spreading depression in anesthetized adult rats. The potential implications for the human neurological health remain to be investigated.     

运动对慢性应激大鼠抑郁行为及脑ERK/CREB通路作用

目的探讨运动干预对慢性应激模型大鼠抑郁行为及不同脑区细胞外信号调节蛋白激酶(ERK)-环磷酸腺苷反应元件结合蛋白(CREB)信号通路磷酸化水平变化。方法40 只雄性SD大鼠随机分为对照组、应激组、运动组、运动＋应激组,采用慢性温和不可预知性应激方法建立抑郁症模型;采用旷场实验及糖水消耗实验进行行为学测定,免疫组织化学方法检测海马、额叶皮层磷酸化ERK(p-ERK)及磷酸化CREB(p-CREB)表达变化。结果与对照组比较,慢性应激大鼠水平运动评分[(20.4±11.67)分]、垂直运动评分[(5.4±2.36)分]、体重增加量[(29.82±17.68)g]和糖水摄入量[(8.13±2.56)g]均减少(P<0.01),海马、额叶皮层p-ERK及p-CREB表达均降低(P<0.01);与应激组比较,运动+应激组大鼠水平运动评分[(48.2±22.66)分]、垂直运动评分[(13.1±3.06)分]、体重增加量[(76.50±25.81)g]和糖水摄入量[(17.02±4.13)g]均升高;与对照组比较,运动组各脑区P-ERK/P-CREB[(23.76±4.11)、(32.64±5.37)、(6.73±0.55)、(5.79±0.51)]磷酸化水平均升高(P<0.05)。结论运动具有一定抗抑郁样行为学效应,其分子机制可能与上调脑内ERK/CREB信号通路的磷酸化水平有关。     

Acute effects of exercise on attentional bias in low and high anxious young adults

ObjectiveTo examine the effects of an acute bout of exercise on attentional bias, mood, and memory in young adult females who differ in anxiety.MethodsSixty-four participants between the ages of 18–34 years completed two experiments involving tests of attentional bias, mood, and memory before and after a cycling protocol or seated rest control condition. Participants were categorized into low-trait anxious (n = 29) or high-trait anxious (n = 35) groups and randomly allocated to experimental conditions. For both experiments, participants completed the assessments before and following 20 min of moderate intensity exercise or seated rest. Experiment 1 examined word-based attentional bias, while Experiment 2 utilized picture-based attentional bias tests.ResultsAcute moderate exercise did not alter word-based attentional bias. Exercise decreased picture-based attentional bias, but failed to reach statistical significance (p = 0.057). Enhancements in participants' mood post-exercise were observed; effects of exercise on memory were inconsistent.ConclusionThe effects of acute exercise on attentional bias seems to depend on stimulus type. Results suggest that exercise has a greater impact on picture-based attentional bias pre- to post-exercise (Experiment 2) compared to word-based attentional bias (Experiment 1). Moderate intensity exercise improves measures of total mood disturbance, anger, confusion, state anxiety, vigor and tension. This suggests that exercise may have a greater impact on subjective mood measures compared to the attentional processes associated with anxiety.     

Self-care behavior change and depression among low-income predominantly Hispanic patients in safety-net clinics

This study examined whether changes in self-care behaviors during a 12-month period predicted the likelihood of screening positive for depression concurrently and prospectively among low-income Hispanic patients with diabetes. Secondary analyses were conducted with longitudinal data collected from a randomized controlled trial that had tested effectiveness of collaborative depression care. We examined whether changes in self-care behaviors observed during the 12 months after baseline predicted the likelihood of screening positive for depression at 12-, 18-, and 24-month follow-up. Self-care behaviors included healthy diet, exercise, self-blood glucose monitoring, and foot care, which were measured by a validated self-reported instrument. Logistic regression analyses indicated that patients with more frequent healthy diet during the 12 months after baseline had significantly lower likelihood of depression. Patients with more frequent exercise had a lower likelihood of screening for depression at 18- and 24-month follow-up. No significant association was found with self-blood glucose monitoring and foot care. These findings suggest the importance of integrated care that emphasizes healthy diet and exercise, together with traditional depression treatment, when helping low-income Hispanic patients with diabetes and comorbid depression.     

Effects of physical exercise on depression, neuroendocrine stress hormones and physiological fitness in adolescent females with depressive symptoms

BACKGROUND: Regular physical exercise may improve a variety of physiological and psychological factors in depressive persons. However, there is little experimental evidence to support this assumption for adolescent populations. We conducted a randomized controlled trial to investigate the effect of physical exercise on depressive state, the excretions of stress hormones and physiological fitness variables in adolescent females with depressive symptoms. METHODS: Forty-nine female volunteers (aged 18-20 years; mean 18.8 +/- 0.7 years) with mild-to-moderate depressive symptoms, as measured by the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) scale, were randomly assigned to either an exercise regimen or usual daily activities for 8 weeks. The subjects were then crossed over to the alternate regimen for an additional 8-week period. The exercise program consisted of five 50-min sessions per week of a group jogging training at a mild intensity. The variables measured were CES-D rating scale, urinary cortisol and epinephrine levels, and cardiorespiratory factors at rest and during exercise endurance test. RESULTS: After the sessions of exercise the CES-D total depressive score showed a significant decrease, whereas no effect was observed after the period of usual daily activities (ANOVA). Twenty-four hour excretions of cortisol and epinephrine in urine were reduced due to the exercise regimen. The training group had a significantly reduced resting heart rate and increased peak oxygen uptake and lung capacity. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study suggest that a group jogging exercise may be effective in improving depressive state, hormonal response to stress and physiological fitness of adolescent females with depressive symptoms.     

新生期母婴分离对大鼠成年后行为的影响及机制

目的:探讨新生期母婴分离对大鼠成年后行为的影响及其产生的机制。方法:建立动物模型,以受孕的w istar大鼠为研究对象,生产后,每笼饲养12只新生大鼠和1只哺乳期母鼠。实验分为2组,即母婴分离(NMS)组和对照组(N),NMS组在出生后第2~21天每天同时间分离3 h,N组不做任何处理。在2月时,分别采用三通互通脑功能仪测定成年后大鼠行为的改变,并采用免疫组织化学的方法检测5-HT和5-HT受体在成年大鼠脑组织海马中的表达情况。结果:与对照组比较,母婴分离组成年后大鼠自发活动的总路程显著减少(P<0.05),平均速度减慢(P<0.05)。与对照组比较,母婴分离组大鼠海马组织5-HT及5-HT受体的表达明显减少,差异具有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论:新生期母婴分离后可导致成年大鼠自发活动减少,表现出焦虑和抑郁样行为。5-HT及5-HT受体在海马中的表达减少是导致母婴分离后成年大鼠行为改变的重要机制。     

Intervention effects of exercise self-regulation on physical exercise and eating fruits and vegetables: a longitudinal study in orthopedic and cardiac rehabilitation

Objective

The primary objective of this study was to unveil the mechanisms by which an exercise self-regulation intervention affects physical exercise in a rehabilitation context. The second aim was to investigate whether the intervention led to changes in fruit and vegetable intake that was not targeted in the intervention. Finally, it was tested whether changes in exercise habit strength may explain such a transfer effect.

Method

A quasi-experimental design was conducted in Germany between 2009 and 2011 with 725 rehabilitation patients. Patients received either a self-regulation intervention or an online questionnaire. Six weeks after discharge, self-reported changes in exercise and dietary behaviors, exercise habit strength, and cognitions were measured.

Quantitative results

The exercise self-regulation intervention led to a higher increment in exercise behavior, exercise habit strength, and fruit and vegetable intake than the control condition. Changes in physical exercise were mediated by changes in action control (slope = 0.04; 99% CI = 0.01 to 0.06) and satisfaction (slope = 0.05; 99% CI: = 0.02 to 0.08), but not in action planning. Changes in fruit and vegetable intake were mediated by changes in exercise habit strength (slope = 0.05; 99% CI = 0.01 to 0.08).

Conclusion

Interventions could be optimized if they aim at fostering exercise habits. This in turn may also facilitate transfer effects from one health behavior to the other.     

The role of fatigue in the associations between exercise and psychological health in Multiple Sclerosis: Direct and indirect effects

This research aims to investigate the direct and indirect effects of physical training on psychological health in a sample of individuals with Multiple Sclerosis (MS). Thirty-five women affected by relapsing-remitting MS, with a mean age of (40 ± 5) years and an Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) score ranging between 0 and 3, participated in the study. After baseline tests, in accordance with pairing techniques, participants were assigned to an experimental (EG) and a control group (CG). The EG attended a 12-week combined aerobic and strength program. Those in the EG and the CG were homogeneous at baseline and were treated similarly except for the intervention. Participants of both groups were tested before and after the intervention with the following instruments: 1. Modified Fatigue Impact Scale (MFIS); 2. Beck Depression Inventory scale (BDI); 3. Multiple Sclerosis Quality of life–54 (MSQOL-54). Data was analyzed with non-parametric tests for unpaired samples, linear regression and mediation analysis. The results showed: (a) the benefits of physical training on the perception of fatigue, depression, social activity and Quality of Life (QoL) in the EG; (b) the role of fatigue as a mediator of the relationship between participation in physical training and depression, social activity and QoL. Findings suggested the effectiveness of a combined aerobic and strength training for the improvement of psychological aspects in women affected by MS and the mediation role of fatigue in such a relationship.     

Urocortins: CRF's siblings and their potential role in anxiety,depression and alcohol drinking behavior

It is widely accepted that stress, anxiety, depression and alcohol abuse-related disorders are in large part controlled by corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) receptors. However, evidence is accumulating that some of the actions on these receptors are mediated not by CRF, but by a family of related Urocortin (Ucn) peptides Ucn1, Ucn2 and Ucn3. The initial narrow focus on CRF as the potential main player acting on CRF receptors appears outdated. Instead it is suggested that CRF and the individual Ucns act in a complementary and brain region-specific fashion to regulate anxiety-related behaviors and alcohol consumption. This review, based on a symposium held in 2011 at the research meeting on “Alcoholism and Stress” in Volterra, Italy, highlights recent evidence for regulation of these behaviors by Ucns. In studies on stress and anxiety, the roles of Ucns, and in particular Ucn1, appear more visible in experiments analyzing adaptation to stressors rather than testing basal anxiety states. Based on these studies, we propose that the contribution of Ucn1 to regulating mood follows a U-like pattern with both high and low activity of Ucn1 contributing to high anxiety states. In studies on alcohol use disorders, the CRF system appears to regulate not only dependence-induced drinking, but also binge drinking and even basal consumption of alcohol. While dependence-induced and binge drinking rely on the actions of CRF on CRFR1 receptors, alcohol consumption in models of these behaviors is inhibited by actions of Ucns on CRFR2. In contrast, alcohol preference is positively influenced by actions of Ucn1, which is capable of acting on both CRFR1 and CRFR2. Because of complex distribution of Ucns in the nervous system, advances in this field will critically depend on development of new tools allowing site-specific analyses of the roles of Ucns and CRF.     

Correlates of depression in a representative nationwide sample of adolescents (15-19 years) and young adults (20-24 years)

BACKGROUND: The authors investigated correlates of depression in a general population sample of adolescents (15-19 years) and young adults (20-24 years). METHODS: As part of the Finnish Health Care Survey a random sample of 509 adolescents (281 females, 228 males) and 433 young adults (224 females, 209 males) was interviewed in 1996. DSM-IIR major depressive episode (MDE) was assessed by the University of Michigan Composite International Diagnostic Interview Short Form (UM-CIDI SF). RESULTS: In multivariable regression analysis, current smoking (odds ratio (OR) 5.54; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.44, 21.3) and chronic illness (OR 3.77; 95% CI: 1.04, 13.7) associated with MDE among adolescents. Among young adults, drunkenness at least twice a month (OR 4.48; 95% CI: 1.44, 14.0) or once a month (OR 2.79; 95% CI: 1.14, 6.83), not being married nor cohabiting (OR 3.50; 95% CI: 1.35, 9.08) and infrequent physical exercise (OR 4.01; 95% CI: 1.18, 14.0) were related to MDE. Female MDE associated with not being married nor cohabiting (OR 3.56; 95% CI: 1.23, 10.1) and living in southern Finland (OR 2.30; 95% CI: 1.06, 5.02). Drunkenness at least twice a month was related to MDE among males (OR 4.54; 95% CI: 1.27, 16.3). CONCLUSIONS: Attention should be paid to compromised health and health-related behaviour associating with MDE in youth. Specifically, the association between smoking and major depression in early adolescence should be borne in mind, and drinking habits or frequency of drunkenness should be carefully noted.