Blood lead levels and risk factors for lead poisoning in children and caregivers in Chuuk State, Micronesia

Lead poisoning is a preventable environmental disease. Children and developing fetuses are especially vulnerable; even low blood lead levels (BLLs) are linked with learning and behavioral problems. We assessed children's and their caregivers' BLLs and risk factors for lead exposure in Chuuk State, Federated States of Micronesia. Children aged 2-6 years were randomly selected within 20 randomly selected villages. Children and caregivers provided venous blood, and caregivers offered information about possible risk factors for lead exposure. Mean BLLs were 39 microg/l for children and 16 microg/l for caregivers. Children with BLLs of > or = 100 microg/l (elevated) were 22.9 (95% CI: 4.5-116.0) times more likely to have a caregiver with an elevated BLL, 6.2 (95% CI: 1.4-27.3) times more likely to live on an outer island, and 3.4 (95% CI: 1.7-6.9) times more likely to have a family member who made lead fishing weights than did other children even after controlling for age and sex. For children, 61% of elevated BLLs could be attributed to making fishing weights. Caregivers with elevated BLLs were 5.9 (95% CI: 1.5-23.7) times more likely to live in a household that melted batteries than other caregivers even after controlling for age and education. For caregivers, 37% of the elevated BLLs could be attributed to melting batteries. The association of elevated BLLs in children and their caregiver suggests a common environmental exposure. Melting batteries to make fishing sinkers is a preventable source of lead exposure for children and their caregivers in Chuuk. Published by Elsevier GmbH.     

合肥市七区2008-2009年儿童血铅水平及其影响因素研究

【目的】 描述2008-2009年合肥市七区儿童血铅水平,分析其影响因素,为儿童血铅防治提供循证依据。 【方法】 应用分层整群抽样方法,2008-2009年选取合肥市七个地区3 394例0～6岁儿童为调查对象,采用钨舟原子吸收光谱仪检测血铅;同时,开展儿童血铅影响因素问卷调查。 【结果】 合肥市0～6岁男童血铅平均水平为(47.06±23.30) μg/L,女童血铅平均水平为(45.09±23.30) μg/L。1～岁组、2～岁组男童血铅平均水平高于其他年龄组;0～岁组、1～岁组、2～岁组女童血铅水平高于其他年龄组;除包河区和高新区外,其余各区及全市2009年血铅水平均较2008年显著降低,且2009年全市儿童铅中毒率较2008年显著降低;父亲从事铅相关职业、住所距主干道≤30 m、户外活动时间>3 h、进食前不洗手等成为影响儿童血铅水平过高的主要危险因素。 【结论】 目前合肥市的儿童血铅水平呈下降趋势,应进一步加强铅中毒危害的宣传教育,对重点人群采取行之有效的干预措施。     

Risk factors for lead poisoning among Cuban refugee children

OBJECTIVES: This study was designed to explore whether parental activities such as repairing cars, welding, and rebuilding car batteries are risk factors for lead poisoning among Cuban refugee children in Miami-Dade County. METHODS: The authors performed a cross-sectional study of 479 children aged 12-83 months who had lived in Cuba during the six months prior to immigrating to the U.S. Lead levels were obtained, and parents provided information on demographics, home/neighborhood environment in Cuba prior to immigration, family/occupational factors prior to immigration, and child behavior factors. RESULTS: Of 479 children, 30 (6.3%) had elevated blood lead levels (EBLLs), defined as > or = 10 microg/dL, based on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention action level. In multivariate analysis, racial/ethnic identification other than white, living in a home built after 1979, car repair in the home or yard, eating paint chips, and male sex were independently associated with EBLL. CONCLUSIONS: Risk factors for lead poisoning among immigrant children may differ from those among U.S.-born children. Screening of immigrant children who may have been exposed in their country of origin and education of immigrant parents about lead exposure hazards associated with activities such as car repair should be considered in the design of lead poisoning prevention and control programs.     

2007-2011年中国儿童血铅水平及铅中毒率的分析

摘要:目的　描述2007-2011年我国儿童整体血铅水平、铅中毒率及分布特征。方法　本研究通过计算机检索2007-2012年公开发表的关于儿童血铅水平和（或）铅中毒率研究的论文,依照时间挑选出2007-2011年的文献按年份分类整理。对27省（市）88万多人做了调查研究。结果　2007-2011年我国儿童血铅水平（μg/L）分别是:68.62、59.13、53.36、66.56和46.56,平均血铅水平58.88 μg/L;而相应的儿童铅中毒率（%）分别是:19.56、11.56、12.67、10.41和7.27,平均铅中毒率是12.29%。结果说明,2007-2011年我国0～5岁儿童的血铅水平和铅中毒率随着年龄的增加而升高,尽管6岁组与5岁组相比,血铅水平及铅中毒率有所降低,但仍高于其他年龄组;同样,除2010年的儿童血铅水平比2008和2009年有所增加外,2007-2011年儿童血铅水平和铅中毒率随着年份的增加呈降低趋势。此外,经Meta分析发现,2007-2011年儿童铅中毒率和血铅水平也呈现明显的性别分布特征和地区分布特征。结论　2007-2011年我国儿童血铅水平和铅中毒率仍然较高,预防儿童铅中毒仍然是我国今后应当重视的医学问题和社会问题。     

株洲市2016-2018年门诊儿童血铅水平及影响因素分析

了解株洲市门诊儿童血铅水平及其影响因素,为防治铅暴露提供针对性建议.方法 以2016年2月1日至2018年8月1日检测在湖南中医药高等专科学校附属第一医院儿科门诊进行常规体检的1 600名≤14岁儿童静脉血铅水平和血清钙、铁、锌、镁、铜含量,并对儿童家长进行儿童血铅水平影响因素问卷调查.结果 儿童血铅水平为(95.2 ±46.5)μg/L.血铅水平≥100μg/L者检出率达25.7%,不同性别、年龄组儿童血铅水平差异均有统计学意义(Z值分别为1.85,2.85,P值均<0.05).静脉血铅水平与血清钙、铁、锌、镁、铜含量呈负相关(F=16.80,P<0.01).多因素Logistic回归分析显示.经常饮用罐装或瓶装饮料、进食前经常不洗手、常食爆米花、居室用煤、常吸吮手指/啃手指甲与血铅水平呈正性相关(OR值分别为2.12,1.57,1.46,1.78,3.24,P值均<0.01).结论 株洲市儿童血铅水平较高.应加强环境保护和行为干预,并定期检测血铅水平.     

Identifying culturally appropriate strategies for educating a Mexican immigrant community about lead poisoning prevention

Lead paint is one source of exposure for lead poisoning; however, recent Latino and other immigrant populations are also at risk of exposure through ceramic cooking pots with lead glaze, some imported candies, and certain stomach ailment home remedies. Public health agencies and practitioners acknowledge that Latino families should be educated about lead poisoning prevention but report barriers to conducting outreach and education in Latino communities. This study reports findings from focus groups and interviews with the local Latino immigrant community and professionals on (1) current knowledge and beliefs about lead poisoning and (2) recommendations of culturally appropriate educational strategies.     

北京市0～6岁儿童血铅水平与相关影响因素的研究

目的　了解近期北京市 0～ 6岁儿童血铅水平及其影响因素。方法　采取分层整群随机抽样的方法。 2 0 0 1年 5～ 7月调查北京市常住人口中 0～ 6岁儿童 2 2 62名。采用石墨炉原子吸收法进行微量血中铅含量的测定 ,并做相关因素问卷调查。结果　北京市 0～ 6岁儿童血铅水平均值为96.8μg L,血铅值≥ 10 0 μg L为 3 5.7% ,血铅值≥ 2 0 0 μg L为 2 .5%。农村儿童铅中毒为 43 % ,明显高于城区和郊区儿童。 2岁组铅中毒为 45.1%高于其他年龄组。男童血铅平均值 10 0 .2 μg L明显高于女童血铅平均值 93 .0 μg L(P <0 .0 1)。不喝或偶喝牛奶、居室距繁华马路≤ 50m、家庭居住 1层楼房或平房为儿童高血铅的主要危险因素。结论　目前北京市儿童血铅水平≥ 10 0 μg L的比例不容忽视 ,应对重点人群采取行之有效的干预措施     

Influence of nutrient intake on blood lead levels of young children at risk for lead poisoning

Although removal of lead paint hazards from at-risk houses remains the primary means of preventing elevated blood lead among young children, reduction of risk through nutritional factors has also been of interest. In this study we evaluated the effect of nutrient intake on blood lead levels by analyzing whether the intakes of certain dietary components a) were associated with blood lead levels independent of lead exposure or b) modified the effect of lead exposure on blood lead. Subjects were 205 children from low-income families who were approximately 1 year of age and living in old, urban houses. The data collected for each child included blood lead level, nutritional status, and amount of lead exposure, which was assessed from samples of household dust. Multiple linear regression analyses showed a statistically significant positive association between lead exposure and blood lead. Statistically significant positive associations were found between blood lead and total fat as well as blood lead and saturated fat, independent of lead exposure and age of the child. Regression modeling and stratified analysis showed that mean blood lead increased with increasing lead exposure as well as with increasing caloric intake, suggesting that caloric intake modifies the association between lead exposure and blood lead. The findings from this study, if replicated in other studies, support a dietary intervention to reduce the amount of total calories, total fat, and saturated fat among children 1 year of age at risk for lead exposure, while maintaining adequate intake of these dietary components. Our results also reinforce recommendations that removal of lead paint hazards from at-risk houses should be the primary means of preventing lead exposure.     

Blood lead and cadmium levels and relevant factors among children from an e-waste recycling town in China

Background

Primitive electronic waste (e-waste) recycling is ongoing in Guiyu, and thus toxic heavy metals may keep on threatening to the health of local children. Some related factors may contribute to the elevation of blood lead levels (BLLs) or blood cadmium levels (BCLs).

Objective

To investigate the children's BLLs and BCLs in Guiyu and Chendian as compare to discuss the effects of primitive e-waste recycling activities on children's health.

Methods

Two hundred and seventy-eight children less than 8 years who lived in Guiyu and Chendian were observed, and their BLLs and BCLs were determined by graphite atomizer absorption spectrophotometer. Questionnaire survey for risk factors was also performed and data were analyzed using spearman correlation analyses and logistic regression analyses.

Results

Children living in Guiyu had significantly higher BLLs and BCLs as compared with those living in Chendian (p<0.01). In Guiyu, 70.8% of children (109/154) had BLLs>10 μg/dL, and 20.1% of children (31/154) had BCLs>2 μg/L, compared with 38.7% of children (48/124) had BLLs>10 μg/dL and 7.3% of children (9/124) had BCLs>2 μg/L in Chendian (p<0.01, respectively). We also observed a significant increasing trend in BLLs with increasing age in Guiyu (p<0.01). Mean height of children in Guiyu was significantly lower than that in Chendian (p<0.01). The risk factors related to children's BLLs and BCLs mainly included father's engagement in the work related to e-waste, children's residence in Guiyu and the amount of time that children played outside near the road everyday.

Conclusions

There are close relationships between the BLLs, BCLs in children and the primitive e-waste recycling activities in Guiyu. Environmental pollution, especially lead pollution, has threatened the health of children living around e-waste recycling site.     

Blood lead levels and associated sociodemographic factors among preschool children in the South Eastern region of China

Children are especially vulnerable to lead toxicity, and exposure to lead has been linked to poor school performance and delinquency in children and adolescents. Even low-level lead exposure [blood lead level (BLL) <10 μg/dL] can cause intellectual deficit. In China, BLLs in children decreased slightly after the phasing out of lead in gasoline, but few studies have examined the sociodemographic factors associated with BLL above 10 μg/dL. In this study, we sought to examine the hypothesis that sociodemographic factors predict BLLs. We measured BLLs of 1344 preschool children (3-5 years old) from the China Jintan Child Cohort Study. Children's sociodemographic and health statuses, as well as parental sociodemographic data, were collected using questionnaires. Regression models were used to explore the association between sociodemographic factors and log-transformed BLLs as well as the relationship between sociodemographic factors and the risk of BLL ≥10 μg/dL. We found the median BLL to be 6.2 μg/dL (range: 1.8-32.0 μg/dL); 8% of children had BLLs ≥10 μg/dL. Boys had a higher median BLL (6.4 μg/dL) than girls and were more likely to have BLL ≥10 μg/dL [odds ratio = 1.77, 95% confidence interval 1.14, 2.74]. BLLs increased as children aged, with a median BLL of 6.6 μg/dL among 5-year-old children. Children with siblings had a higher average BLL and greater prevalence of a BLL ≥10 μg/dL than those without siblings. Living in a crowded neighbourhood was also associated with increased BLLs. Mother's lower education, father's occupation (as professional worker) and parental smoking at home were associated with increased BLLs. This study shows that children in this area still have relatively high BLLs even after the phasing out of leaded gasoline. Both children's and parental factors and community condition are associated with increased BLLs. Future efforts are needed to identify other sources of exposure and develop targeted prevention strategies.     

Lessons from a primary-prevention program for lead poisoning among inner-city children

This study evaluated the impact on childhood lead poisoning of a primary-prevention educational-intervention program for pregnant women in St. Louis, Missouri. The women were predominantly poor and of African-American, Hispanic, Asian, and Caucasian backgrounds. The interventions, tailored for each woman on the basis of responses to a survey and environmental measurements, included case management with hands-on instruction on cleaning techniques, property maintenance, hygiene, and nutrition to reduce exposure of newborns to lead. It was hypothesized that the probability of lead poisoning (blood lead levels greater than 10 microg/dL) would be reduced among mothers who received the interventions compared with those who received only printed educational material. Contrary to expectations, none of the interventions reduced the likelihood of lead poisoning among participating children. In the process of the study, however, a number of valuable lessons related to recruitment and commitment of participants emerged that can inform future efforts of this nature.     

Blood lead levels among high-risk children, Detroit, Michigan.

Since 1972, a federally funded lead screening program has been operational in Detroit, Michigan. Blood lead screening data (27,430 initial tests on Black children less than or equal to 6 years) were assigned by census tract of child's residence to one of the 15 socioeconomically similar areas in geographic proximity to one another. Higher blood lead levels were associated with lower education, lower income, and increased proportion of single parent families. This emphasizes the need to continue screening efforts in lower socioeconomic areas with older housing.     

Blood lead levels in children, China

To evaluate Chinese children's blood lead levels (BLLs) and identify its distribution features, we collected articles on children's BLLs published from 1994 to March 2004 using the Chinese Biomedical Disc and reviewed 32 articles eligible for the following criteria: (1) BLLs measured by Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy or Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry; (2) strict quality control; (3) no lead pollution sources in the areas where the screened subjects live; and (4) sample size bigger than 100. We found that mean BLLs of Chinese children was 92.9 microg/L (37.2-254.2 microg/L), and 33.8% (9.6-80.5%) of the subjects had BLLs higher than 100 microg/L. Nine of the 27 provinces or cities reported had average BLLs 100 microg/L. Boys' BLL was 96.4 microg/L, significantly higher than girls' 89.4 microg/L (P<0.001). BLLs of children 6 years increased with age. The mean BLLs of children living in industrial and urban areas were significantly higher than those of children in suburbs and rural areas. Our results suggested that children's BLLs in China are higher than those of their counterparts in other countries due to its heavy lead pollution. Therefore, this is of great public health importance.     

新疆不同民族儿童血铅水平及相关因素分析

目的了解新疆不同民族6～10岁儿童血铅水平及其相关因素。方法采取整群随机抽样方法。对乌鲁木齐市10所学校6～10岁1513名汉族、维吾尔族、哈萨克族儿童进行调查。采用BH-2100型原子吸收光谱仪进行血铅测定，并做相关影响因素问卷调查。结果汉族、哈萨克族儿童血铅平均水平差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05），汉族、维吾尔族、哈萨克族儿童铅中毒率分别为23．31％，23．25％和22．10％，差异无统计学意义（P〉0．05）；汉族、维吾尔族、哈萨克族儿童社会经济状况（SES）、不良饮食习惯、家庭居住环境、家庭装修情况、不良生活习惯等是儿童铅中毒的主要危险因素，各民族主要危险因素顺位有差异。结论乌鲁木齐市儿童血铅水平≥100μg／L的比例不容忽视，应对重点人群采取行之有效的干预措施。     

Elevated blood lead levels among children living in a fishing community, Karachi, Pakistan

Lead is a widespread environmental contaminant worldwide and is associated with adverse outcomes in children, including impaired neurobehavioral development and learning difficulties. A cross-sectional survey of 53 young children was conducted in a fishing village on an island adjacent to Karachi, Pakistan. Whole blood from each individual was tested for lead levels. Also tested were samples of cooked food, house dust, and drinking water from 36 households. Laboratory determinations were made by the Pakistan Council for Scientific and Industrial Research with quality control by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Fifty-two subjects (98%) had blood lead levels above 10 microg/dl (mean 21.60 microg/dl), an internationally recognized threshold for potential neurotoxicity. The mean concentration was 3.90 microg/g in cooked food, 4.02 microg/l in drinking water, and 91.30 microg/g in house dust. These findings indicate possible major health concerns and suggest significant environmental contamination in this community as well as the need to identify locally relevant early childhood exposures.     

贵港市农村儿童杀虫剂中毒危险因素分析

目的 探索贵港市农村儿童杀虫剂中毒的危险因素.方法 采用1:4个体匹配病例对照研究,对贵港市农村2009年1-12月因杀虫剂中毒而急诊或住院的78例中毒儿童和312名对照儿童的家长或监护人进行问卷调查,调查表内容包括:一般情况以及家庭结构、监护情况、父母学历、家庭年均总收入、家庭和学校健康教育、儿童危险行为等21个可能与杀虫剂中毒相关的因素.对调查结果采用条件logistic回归模型进行统计分析.结果 贵港市农村儿童杀虫剂中毒的危险因素有3项,分别为随意放置工作服和喷洒器具( OR=3.529,95％CI:1.408 ～8.848)、儿童经常外出玩耍( OR=2.846,95％ CI:1.513 ～5.352)、祖辈为监护人(OR=2.187,95％CI:1.187 ～4.029);保护因素有5项,分别为监护频率高(OR=0.408,95％ CI:0.205 ～0.811)、知晓中毒预防知识(OR=0.412,95％ CI:0.224～0.758)、及时清洗工作服(OR=0.435,95％ CI:0.212 ～0.893)、学校设置健康教育课程(OR=0.448,95％ CI:0.232 ～0.867)、经常教育儿童不接触毒物(OR=0.462,95％ CI:0.227～0.939).结论 农村儿童杀虫剂中毒的发生与儿童自身危险行为、家庭因素、环境因素、健康教育等因素均有关.     

婴幼儿血铅水平及其影响因素

目的　了解婴幼儿的血铅水平及其影响因素。　方法　用石墨炉原子吸收光谱法测定2 6 2例婴幼儿末梢血铅浓度 ,并进行铅中毒影响因素的调查。　结果　婴幼儿血铅算术平均值为0 .4 3μmol/L,范围为 0 .10～ 1.4 5 μmol/L,铅中毒发生率为 37.0 2 % (97/2 6 2 )。不同性别、不同年龄婴幼儿血铅水平及铅中毒发生率差异无显著性 (P>0 .0 5 ) ,各年龄婴幼儿血铅等级分布以 I级最高 ,婴幼儿铅中毒属 II～ III级。饭前不洗手、经常在马路边玩耍、经常看彩色书刊后不洗手、父母职业、住房为 1990年以后建造的是影响婴幼儿血铅水平的因素。　结论　婴幼儿已受到不同程度的铅损伤 ,应引起家长及有关方面的重视     

Blood lead levels among children of lead-exposed workers: A meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: To further assess the utility of targeted blood lead screening for children from households with members having occupational lead exposures, we conducted a meta-analysis of all available reports of take-home lead exposures. Our objective was to estimate the blood lead levels among U.S. children (ages 1-5) from households with lead-exposed workers. METHODS: Reports considered for inclusion were cited in Medline, Toxline, Excerpta Medica, and Bio-Med plus all unpublished reports available at the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health through 1994. The a priori criteria for inclusion of U.S. reports required their having data on: (1) venous blood lead levels for children, (2) children's ages, (3) data for at least five children, (4) workers' occupations, (5) workers' blood lead levels, and (6) data collection methods. RESULTS: Based on a meta-analysis of 10 reports from 1987 through 1994, the children (n=139) of lead-exposed workers (n=222) had a geometric mean blood lead level of 9.3 microg/dL compared to a U.S. population geometric mean of 3.6 microg/dL (P=0.0006). Also in this group, 52% of the children had blood lead levels (BLLs) >/= 10 microg/dL compared to 8.9% in the U.S. (P=.0010), and 21% of the children had BLLs >/= 20 microg/dL compared to 1.1% in the U.S. (P=. 0258). CONCLUSIONS: We estimate, based on 1981-83 survey data, that there are about 48,000 families with children under six living with household members occupationally exposed to lead. If the findings from this meta-analysis (admittedly limited by small numbers) are generalizable, about half of the young children in these families may have BLLs >/= 10 microg/dL. Data were too sparse to determine if children of workers with elevated blood leads were at greater risk than children whose parents were only known to be lead exposed. Our findings support the position that children of lead-exposed workers should be targeted for blood lead screening. Am. J. Ind. Med. 36:475-481, 1999. Published 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.