Rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease in Bangladesh: A review

Rheumatic fever (RF) and rheumatic heart disease (RHD) are the most-common cardiovascular disease in young people aged <25 years, globally. They are important contributors to cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in Bangladesh. Classical risk factors, i.e. poverty, overcrowding, ignorance, and insufficient health care services were responsible for the high incidence and prevalence of these diseases over the last century. In concert with the progresses in socioeconomic indicators, advances in health sectors, improved public awareness, and antibiotic prophylaxis, acute RF came into control. However, chronic RHD continues to be prevalent, and the actual disease burden may be much higher. RHD predominantly affects the young adults, seriously incapacitates them, follows a protracted course, gets complicated because of delayed diagnosis and is sometimes maltreated. The treatment is often palliative and expensive. Large-scale epidemiological and clinical researches are needed to formulate evidence-based national policy to tackle this important public health issue in future.     

Lymphocyte subsets in acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease

Lymphocyte subsets in 53 patients with acute rheumatic fever and 78 patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease were compared with 20 normal control subjects and 39 patients suffering from uncomplicated streptococcal pharyngitis to obtain information about the pathogenesis of the disease. Twenty patients with rheumatic fever were followed for 24 weeks to evaluate changes occurring over the course of the disease. Total leukocyte and lymphocyte counts were increased in patients with rheumatic fever and to a lesser extent in those with rheumatic heart disease, when compared with controls. The difference between the two groups was significant. Patients with acute rheumatic fever had an increased number of B cells and a smaller increase in total T and T-helper-inducer (CD-4) cells. The proportion of B cells increased, while that of T-suppressor-cytotoxic (CD-8) cells fell. An increased number and proportion of B cells was also seen in patients with rheumatic heart disease. Total T and T-helper lymphocyte percentages and numbers were significantly higher in patients with rheumatic fever compared with those of patients with rheumatic heart disease. Follow-up studies at 6, 12, and 24 weeks revealed no significant differences from the entry point studies, although there was a trend toward reduction in the degree of derangement from normal values. Patients with uncomplicated streptococcal pharyngitis, however, did not show perturbations in the T-cell and T-subset counts. Our study suggests that the immunoregulatory defect in acute rheumatic fever is characterized by a relative reduction of suppressor T cells with an absolute increase in helper T cells and B cells, resulting in an increased cellular as well as humoral immune response.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Increased levels of high sensitive C-reactive protein in patients with chronic rheumatic valve disease: evidence of ongoing inflammation

The precise pathogenetic mechanism(s) of rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease have never been defined. C-reactive protein (CRP) is increased in patients with acute rheumatic fever, but it is not known whether plasma levels increase in patients with chronic rheumatic valve disease. The aim of this study was to determine the role of inflammation detected by high sensitivity CRP (hs-CRP) levels in the progression of chronic rheumatic valve disease. A total of 113 patients with chronic rheumatic valve disease (81 women, 32 men; mean age 40+/-14 years, range 13-70), 51 patients with prosthetic valve(s) (31 women, 20 men; mean age 48+/-13 years, range 21-71) and 102 healthy subjects (68 women, 34 men, mean age 41+/-12 years, range 25-73), as a control group, were assessed. Patients with acute rheumatic fever, acute infection, inflammatory disease, malignancy, acute myocardial infarction and trauma were excluded. hs-CRP was determined using latex-enhanced immunonephelometric assays on a BN II analyzer (Behring). Transthoracic echocardiography was performed in all patients in order to evaluate valvular disease. Levels of hs-CRP were significantly higher in patients with chronic rheumatic heart disease than in patients with prosthetic valve(s) and healthy subjects (0.62+/-0.64 vs. 0.35+/-0.41 vs. 0.24+/-0.18 mg/l, P<0.01 and P<0.001 respectively). No correlation was observed between CRP and age, sex or functional capacity. We found that hs-CRP is increased in chronic rheumatic heart disease; this may indicate that inflammatory response still persists in the chronic phase.     

The lack of genetic association of the Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) Arg753Gln and Arg677Trp polymorphisms with rheumatic heart disease

Acute rheumatic fever (ARF) is a non-suppurative inflammatory disease after group A, beta haemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis. Certain individuals can develop ARF. This finding implies variability in host predisposition to ARF. A variety of studies have linked specific genetic markers with ARF or rheumatic heart disease (RHD) as a sequelae of ARF. For this purpose, we aimed to search the role of polymorphisms in Toll-like receptor-2 and -4 (TLR2 and TLR4) gene in Turkish patients with RHD. This study included a total 84 patients with RHD, ages ranging between 18 and 65, 25 male and 59 female, fulfilling the revised classification criteria of Jones. One hundred forty healthy unrelated persons were selected as a control group. Genotype analysis: DNA was extracted from whole blood. TLR4 gene (Asp 299Gly and Thr399Ile) and TLR2 gene (Arg753Gln and Arg677Trp) polymorphisms were genotyped by the previously reported method. Statistical analysis: binary logistic regression models were used. Results were expressed as odds ratios (OR) with corresponding 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Significant level was predefined at 0.05. There was a significant difference for carrying Ile allele in the 399 position in the patients compared to healthy controls (OR = 5.26, 95% CI, 1.40-19.73, p = 0.014). In the TLR4 gene, Asp 299Gly polymorphism did not reach to a statistically significant value (OR = 3.02). We found no Arg753Gln polymorphism of the TLR2 gene in the patient group. There were three heterozygote samples in the healthy group. We did not detect Arg677Trp polymorphism of the TLR2 gene in both patient and control groups.     

Isolated rheumatic tricuspid regurgitation and stenosis

The case of a 73-year-old man with right heart failure and systolic and diastolic murmur at the fourth left intercostal space is described. There was a history of rheumatic fever. Two-dimensional echocardiography showed rheumatic change of the tricuspid valve with giant right atrium and ventricle, which was confirmed during operation. This is an unusual case of isolated tricuspid regurgitation and stenosis with convincing evidence of rheumatic etiology.     

风湿性心脏病并发缩窄性心包炎的外科治疗

目的:总结风湿性心脏病并发缩窄性心包炎患者施行瓣膜置换及心包剥除术外科治疗经验。方法:回顾性分析1992-06-2010-02期间对13例风湿性心脏病并发缩窄性心包炎患者施行瓣膜置换及心包剥除术的临床资料。结果:术后死亡1例,死亡原因为重度低心排血量,病死率7.69%。术后不同程度低心排血量6例,术后再次开胸止血1例。13例心包病理检查均为风湿性。随访3个月～8年,心功能Ⅰ～Ⅱ级10例,Ⅲ级2例。结论:对风湿性心脏病并发缩窄性心包炎患者,同期行瓣膜置换和心包剥除手术,积极有效的围术期处理能达到理想的治疗效果。     

389例风湿性心脏瓣膜替换术后远期疗效观察

目的 :分析风湿性心脏病瓣膜置换术后远期疗效及其影响因素。方法 :1980年至 2 0 0 0年施行心脏瓣膜置换 4 33例 ,早期死亡 2 7例。术后获访 389例 ,获访时间为 2 16 8病人年 ,平均 5 92病人年。结果 :晚期死亡 35例。晚期死亡率为 1 6 1%病人年。机械瓣和生物瓣晚期死亡率分别为 1 17%和6 10 %病人年 ,15年生存率分别为 89 3%和 4 3 1%。结论 :影响心脏瓣膜置换晚期疗效的主要因素为术前心功、年龄和心房纤颤。机械瓣置换术后晚期死亡原因主要与抗凝有关并发症、心室纤颤、细菌性心内膜炎和心衰有关 ,而生物瓣膜置换术后死亡原因则为生物瓣衰败     

风湿性心脏瓣膜置换术1 061例临床分析

目的:对1061例风湿性心脏病瓣膜置换术进行早期疗效观察及临床分析。方法:对2000年1月～2005年12月入院施行瓣膜置换术的风湿性心脏瓣膜病例进行回顾总结。结果:1061例中,术后早期病死率1.32%(14例),主要死亡原因为低心排血量综合征(3例)和心室颤动(3例)。术后早期并发症发生率6.41%(68例),其中低心排血量综合征13例、严重心律失常12例,两者占36.76%。结论:术前改善心功能、术中加强心肌保护和改进手术方法、积极处理术后并发症是提高风湿性心脏病瓣膜置换术疗效的重要措施。     

Prospective comparison of clinical and echocardiographic diagnosis of rheumatic carditis: long term follow up of patients with subclinical disease

OBJECTIVE—To determine the frequency of occurrence and long term evolution of subclinical carditis in patients with acute rheumatic fever.
DESIGN—Valvar incompetence was detected by clinical examination and Doppler echocardiographic imaging during the acute and quiescent phases of rheumatic fever. Patients were followed prospectively and submitted to repeat examinations at one and five years after the acute attack. Persistence of acute mitral and aortic lesions detected solely by echocardiography (subclinical disease) was compared with that of disease detected by clinical examination as well (thereby fulfilling the latest 1992 Jones criteria for rheumatic carditis).
SETTING—Three general hospitals with a university affiliation in Chile.
PATIENTS—35 consecutive patients fulfilling the revised Jones criteria for rheumatic fever. Clinical and echocardiographic examination was repeated in 32 patients after one year and in 17 after five years. Ten patients had subclinical carditis on admission, six of whom were followed for five years.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES—Auscultatory and echocardiographic evidence of mitral or aortic regurgitation during the acute attack or at follow up.
RESULTS—Mitral or aortic regurgitation was detected by Doppler echocardiographic imaging in 25/35 rheumatic fever patients as opposed to 5/35 by clinical examination (p = 0.03). Doppler echocardiography revealed acute valvar lesions in 10 of 20 rheumatic fever patients who had no auscultatory evidence of rheumatic carditis (subclinical carditis). Three of these subclinical lesions and three of the clinical or auscultatory lesions detected on admission were still present after five years of follow up, emphasising that subclinical lesions are not necessarily transient.
CONCLUSIONS—Doppler echocardiographic imaging improves the detection of rheumatic carditis. Subclinical valve lesions, detected only by Doppler imaging, can persist. Echocardiographic findings should be accepted as a major criterion for the diagnosis of rheumatic fever.


Keywords: rheumatic heart disease; rheumatic fever; echocardiography; carditis     

Acute rheumatic fever in adults: case report together with an analysis of 25 patients with acute rheumatic fever

We reported the oldest acute rheumatic fever (ARF) patient with initial attack at the age of 90 years and experience with ARF in adults in 20 years of observation. The case files of all ARF patients treated by rheumatology unit, Chiang Mai University, were reviewed. Demographic data and clinical profile were recorded and compared between patients with initial attack and patients with recurrent attack. A total of 25 patients with ARF were included. There was no different incidence of arthritis and carditis between two groups. Initial attack patients have higher incidence of prolonged PR-interval (67 vs. 12%, P = 0.049) and longer duration of admission to diagnosis (5 vs. 2 days, P = 0.05). Thirty percent presented initial attack after 30 years of age. ARF is more common in adults than previously recognized. Therefore, clinicians should be aware of this condition and include it in their differential diagnosis of the febrile patients with arthritis.     

Doppler echocardiography and the early diagnosis of carditis in acute rheumatic fever

Background: The incidence of acute rheumatic fever in New Zealand remains relatively high. Reliable early diagnosis of carditis is difficult and important in management. Aim: To determine if Doppler echocardiography contributed to the early diagnosis of carditis in acute rheumatic fever. Methods: Forty-seven patients admitted to hospital with suspected acute rheumatic fever and 19 control patients, with a febrile illness due to a documented non-cardiac bacterial infection, were assessed two days and two weeks following admission. Presence or absence of clinical carditis was determined by a cardiologist unaware of the suspected diagnosis, from clinical examination, chest radiograph, electrocardiogram (ECG) and two dimensional echocardiogram. Doppler echocardiography was then performed and interpreted by a second cardiologist unaware of the diagnosis. After completion of the study the Jones criteria were applied, to categorise the patients with suspected acute rheumatic fever into four groups for the final diagnosis: no acute rheumatic fever, possible acute rheumatic fever, definite acute rheumatic fever without carditis, and definite acute rheumatic fever with carditis. Results: In 19 patients with a final diagnosis of acute rheumatic fever and carditis at the baseline assessment carditis was detected by clinical assessment in 15 patients, compared with 19 patients with evidence of significant valve regurgitation by Doppler echocardiography. Following the two week assessment, all 19 patients had both clinical and Doppler evidence of carditis. Five patients with a final clinical diagnosis of possible acute rheumatic fever or definite acute rheumatic fever without carditis, had a Doppler abnormality detected. There was no clinical or Doppler abnormality in the febrile controls. Conclusions: Doppler echocardiography is more sensitive than clinical assessment in the detection of carditis in acute rheumatic fever, and can contribute to earlier diagnosis. (Aust NZ J Med 1994; 24: 530–535.)     

瓣膜病变合并冠状动脉病变的手术治疗

目的 总结分析瓣膜病变并发冠状动脉病变的同期手术治疗.方法 分析48例瓣膜置换术同期冠状动脉旁路移植术患者的临床资料.结果 5例发生低心排综合征,其中死亡2例.生存病例随访6～60个月,无心绞痛发作,无出血或血栓形成事件.结论 瓣膜置换术同期冠状动脉旁路移植术效果良好.良好的瓣膜病变矫治、心肌再血管化和心肌保护是手术成功的关键因素.     

High incidence of rheumatic fever and Rheumatic heart disease in the republics of Central Asia

The epidemiological situation involving rheumatic fever (RF) and rheumatic heart disease (RHD) not only remains unresolved but is also a cause of serious concern due to the rapid increase in the incidence of RF/RHD in many developing countries. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the republics of Central Asia experienced an economic decline that directly affected the public health sector of this region. This is the main cause of the high prevalence of many infectious diseases in Central Asia, including streptococcal tonsillopharyngitis, which carries the risk of complications such as RF. The difficulty involved in early diagnosis of RF and the development of RHD among children and adolescents causes early mortality and sudden death, leading to economic damage in these countries due to the loss of the young working population. Among all the developing countries, Kyrgyzstan, which is located in the heart of Central Asia, has the highest prevalence of RF/RHD. The increase in the prevalence of RF in Central Asia can be attributed to factors such as the low standard of living and changes in the virulence of streptococci and their sensitivity to antibiotics.     

风湿性心脏病合并非冠状动脉粥样硬化性心肌梗死的临床及冠脉造影分析

目的探讨慢性风湿性心脏病（风心病）合并心肌梗死的原因、临床特征、冠状动脉造影表现及治疗.方法回顾性分析18例风心病合并心肌梗死患者的临床和冠脉造影资料.结果18例患者中二尖瓣病变15例（83.3%）,其中5例合并主动脉瓣病变;单纯主动脉瓣病变3例;11（61.1%）例已行瓣膜置换术,服用华法令治疗,国际标准比值（INR）维持在2.0～2.5.合并心房颤动15例（83.3%）.18例患者均有突发胸痛病史,心电图显示前壁心肌梗死13例（72.2%）,下壁心肌梗死5例（27.8%）,其中Q波心梗7例（38.9%）,非Q波心梗11例（61.1%）.伴有心肌酶增高.冠状动脉造影显示冠脉正常14例（77.8%）,4例为急性栓塞,其中1例发生于常规冠脉造影中,另3例胸痛时造影分别为对角支、前降支及右冠脉堵塞,经介入治疗再通.全部患者存活.结论并发于风心病的心肌梗死很少见,冠状动脉栓塞是引起心肌梗死的原因,梗死部位多为前壁,延迟冠脉造影多数正常.     

长期慢性咽炎与无症状风湿活动导致风湿性心脏瓣膜病的20年随访研究

目的 探讨长期慢性咽炎与无症状风湿活动引起风湿性心脏病的关系,了解无症状风湿活动引起风湿性心脏瓣膜病的渐进性病程.方法 自1986年开始,从体检者中选取有半年以卜慢性咽炎病史者1126例,从中筛选抗链球菌溶血素O(ASO)在400-500 U/ml,无明确风湿热病史和临床表现者319例随访观察,男性158例,女性161例,年龄14～35岁,平均29.4岁.至本次统计时间,失访6例,收集到313例随访资料,男性155例,女性158例,年龄35～55岁,平均49.6岁.随访期间每年检测1次ASO、肌酸激酶同T酶(CK-MB)、超声心动图.因各种类型心脏瓣膜病变的例数较少,只能列表;发生瓣膜病变者与未发生瓣膜病变者之间ASO和CK-MB的比较采用t检验.结果 ①313例中9例在随访第4年内患典型风湿热.29例于随访第1,2或第3年后ASO持续低于400 U/ml者,在此后的随访中有1例检出二尖瓣增厚.②275例ASO长期在400～500 U/ml,且CK-MB长期在正常高限者,随访第5、10、15、20年时分别有9,42、65、78例发生瓣膜病变.③有瓣膜病变者.趋近于上限的CK-MB明显高于无瓣膜病变者(P<0.05).但ASO水平差异无统计学意义(p>0.05).结论 ASO,CK-MB持续在正常高限的长期慢性咽炎患者中,部分患者在平时的生活过程中长期存在无症状风湿活动,并可由此导致风湿性心脏瓣膜病.     

风湿性心脏病及先天性心脏病心包组织病理改变及胶原含量的变化

目的 :探讨利用先天性心脏病 (CHD)及风湿性心脏病 (RHD)患者心包组织制作自体心包生物瓣膜的可行性。方法 :采用苏木精 -伊红、Van Gieson染色 ,透射电镜技术 ,原子吸收光谱测定 ,组织羟脯氨酸测定及蛋白电泳技术分别观察 1 0例 CHD患者和 1 0例慢性 RHD患者心包组织病理 ,钙、胶原含量及 、 型胶原比值的变化 ,并与 5例正常人尸检的心包组织比较。结果 :CHD、RHD患者心包组织存在轻度纤维化 ,但组织结构基本正常 ;胶原含量分别为 (1 6 7.89± 1 7.44 ) mg/ g和 (1 6 3.6 5± 1 9.35 ) m g/ g,高于正常对照组 (P <0 .0 5 ) ,而胶原 / 型比值低于正常对照组 ,组织钙含量与正常对照组无显著性差异。结论 :CHD和 RHD患者心包组织结构基本正常 ,无钙质沉积 ,可用于制作自体心包瓣膜。