2006-2009年山西省襄垣县VIA/VILI筛查宫颈癌的检出效果评价

目的：通过对2006—2009年山西省襄垣县宫颈癌筛查早诊早治结果分析,评价醋酸或碘染色肉眼观察法（visual inspection with acetic acid/Lugol’s iodine,VIA/VILI）宫颈癌筛查方案在农村高发区推广应用的可行性。方法2006—2009年在山西省襄垣县对30~59岁的妇女进行宫颈癌筛查。用VIA和VILI作为初筛方法,VIA/VILI阳性者进行阴道镜检查,阴道镜异常者在病变处取活检进行病理诊断。对VIA和VILI阴性、VIA/VILI阳性但阴道镜检查正常、VIA/VILI阳性同时阴道镜检查异常且病理活检结果为轻度宫颈上皮内瘤样病变（cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 1,CIN1）或正常的妇女一年后用与初筛同样的方法进行复查。结果2006—2010年累计筛查16703人次,其中初筛9618人,复查7085人。4年初筛人群累计阴道镜转诊率、中度CIN及以上（CIN2+）检出率、重度CIN及以上（CIN3+）检出率分别为4.6%（438/9618）、0.9%（82/9618）、0.5%（44/9618）;复查人群上述指标分别为3.1%（221/7085）、0.6%（42/7085）、0.2%（19/7085）;筛查人群累计（包括初筛和复查）上述指标分别为4.0%（659/16703）、1.3%（124/9618）、0.7%（63/9618）。初筛人群阴道镜转诊率、CIN2+检出率和CIN3+检出率均随方案的持续开展呈升高趋势（P<0.001）;复查阴道镜转诊率、CIN2+检出率则呈下降趋势（P<0.001）。结论随着VIA/VILI筛查方案在示范基地的推广,筛查效果越来越显著。VIA/VI-LI是一种经济有效的宫颈癌及其癌前病变筛查方法,适宜在资源有限、经济欠发达的农村地区推广。持续的培训和实践是VIA/VILI筛查方案有效实施的关键措施。     

河南省新密市2010~2013年农村女性宫颈癌筛查结果分析

摘 要：［目的］ 根据2010～2013年河南省新密市农村地区宫颈癌筛查数据,分析当地女性宫颈癌筛查的参与率,宫颈炎、宫颈癌前病变及宫颈癌的检出率,为当地制定宫颈癌筛查策略提供依据。［方法］ 2010～2013年对新密市35～64岁农村妇女进行宫颈癌筛查,绝经前女性使用醋酸/碘染色肉眼观察法（VIA/VILI）初筛,绝经后女性使用巴氏涂片法初筛。VIA/VILI异常及巴氏涂片结果≥ASC-US者召回行阴道镜检查,并对镜下检查异常处取活检。病理结果为金标准,CIN2及以上妇女转诊进行手术治疗。［结果］ 2010~2013年共筛查115 789名农村女性,总体顺应性为59.50%;VIA/VILI筛查84 762人,阳性率为20.0%;巴氏涂片筛查31 027人,阳性率为4.81%。13 914人进行阴道镜检查,取活检4438例(31.90%)。病理诊断宫颈炎症3830例(3.31%),CIN1 126例(0.11%),CIN2 125例(0.11%),CIN3/原位癌204例(0.18%),宫颈癌67例(0.06%),另发现5例内膜癌(0.004%)、2例外阴癌(0.002%)。［结论］ 2010~2013年新密市CIN2+的整体检出水平较高。农村女性参加筛查的整体顺应性不高,VIA/VILI筛查的假阳性率高,应加强对基层医生技术水平的培训。     

宫颈癌早诊早治农村示范基地研究报告

[目的]通过对9176名妇女采用醋酸或碘染色肉眼筛查方法（VIA/VILI）筛查宫颈癌的早诊早治结果分析,评价在农村高发区宫颈癌采用该筛查方式推广应用的可行性。[方法]以山西省襄垣县30～59岁的妇女作为研究对象进行以自然人群为基础的宫颈癌筛查,用醋酸染色后肉眼观察（VIA）和碘染色后肉眼观察（VILI）进行宫颈检查,VIA或VILI阳性者进行阴道镜检查,阴道镜异常者在病变处取活检进行病理学诊断。采用同样方法对该人群连续复查两年。[结果]首次筛查人群参与率为73.92%,二次复查率为84.3%。2005年首次筛查了1287例妇女,最终经病理确诊的CINⅠ10例、CINⅡ9例、CINⅢ13例、宫颈癌3例。该方法与已往该地区采用液基细胞学和HPV检测联合筛查方法相比较,CINⅡ和≥CINⅢ病变的检出率略低,但差异无统计学意义。连续两年复查出5例CINⅠ,3例CINⅡ,1例CINⅢ。2006～2008年共筛查7889例,首次筛查最终病理确诊116例CINⅠ,36例CINⅡ,35例CINⅢ,4例早期浸润癌,浸润性鳞癌5例。第二次复查,经病理确诊75例CINⅠ,24例CINⅡ,15例CINⅢ,1例早期浸润癌。[结论]在资源有限．经济不发达的农村地区．用VIA／VILI方法对宫颈癌及其癌前病变的筛查是可行的．建议进一步在农村地区进行推广。     

城市计划生育服务站进行宫颈癌筛查可行性分析

[目的]分析城市基层计划生育服务站进行宫颈癌筛查的可行性。[方法]在街道级计划生育服务站每年一度的计划生育妇检中,应用液基细胞学（TCT）检查和HPV检测方法进行宫颈癌筛查,对筛查结果为阳性者（≥不能明确意义的不典型鳞状上皮细胞）转诊阴道镜检查,并行宫颈组织病理诊断,同时进行行政费用的调查。[结果]参加妇科检查的社区居民育龄妇女6630人,672人进行了初筛,顺应性10.14%,发现≥不能明确意义的不典型鳞状上皮细胞58例,占8.63%;人乳头瘤病毒（HPV）检测了67人,阳性28人;59例转诊阴道镜和病理检查,≥宫颈上皮内瘤变（CIN）Ⅱ级8例,CIN检出率1.19%;行政费用率0.29%,与深圳市妇幼保健院妇科门诊机会性筛查相比,差异无统计学意义（χ2=0.395,P〉0.05）。[结论]完善的计生网络及良好的运作为宫颈癌防治工作提供了组织保障,街道计生中心具备技术能力开展宫颈癌的初级筛查。建议政府在每年一度的妇检中加入宫颈癌筛查项目,并依托医院医疗技术进行宫颈癌的早期防治。     

VIA、VILI在农村宫颈癌筛查中的应用

目的 寻找适合农村地区子宫颈癌及其癌前病变的筛查方法,为降低子宫颈癌的发病率及病死率提供科学方法.方法 以湖北省五峰县（宫颈癌早诊早治项目县之一）长乐坪镇30-59岁的已婚妇女作为对象,进行以人群为基础的子宫颈癌筛查,对符合条件的妇女进行危险因素、癌症及子宫颈癌认知情况的问卷调查,5%醋酸染色后肉眼观察（VIA）和2%的卢戈氏碘染色后肉眼观察（VILI）结果异常者,进行阴道镜下活组织检查并得到最终的病理学诊断,将病变检出率与同年在五峰县其它乡镇的宫颈刮片细胞学筛查结果进行比较.结果 该次筛查人群参与率为70%,最终经活检病理确诊的CINⅠ患病率为0.5%（10例）,CINⅡ0.5%（11例）,CINⅢ1.0%（20例）,子宫颈癌0.1%（2例）;宫颈癌及其癌前病变有年轻化趋势;该次单纯由肉眼观察对CINⅠ、CINⅡ的病变检出率,与同年在当地其它乡镇宫颈刮片细胞学普查结果相当,差别无统计意义,但对≥CINⅢ的病变检出率高于宫颈刮片细胞学筛查结果,有统计学意义.结论 肉眼观察是一种经济有效的宫颈癌筛查方法,适宜在农村地区推广,能使更多贫困地区的妇女及时得到子宫颈癌的早诊早治.     

改良宫颈肉眼醋酸试验方法在宫颈癌初筛中的应用

[目的]研究改良的宫颈肉眼醋酸试验方法用于宫颈癌初筛并评价效果。[方法]采取整群随机抽样方法获得深圳市福田区教育局和宝安区观澜街道社区样本人群。采用肉眼醋酸试验方法（VIA）和改良肉眼醋酸试验（VIAM）方法进行宫颈癌筛查,异常者转诊阴道镜,病理诊断为金标准。采用转诊率、活检并发症发生率、检出率、早诊率和病理诊断相符率进行比较。[结果]深圳市福田教育局人群用肉眼醋酸试验方法（VIA）筛查1736例,阳性193例,转诊率11.12%;观澜街道人群用改良肉眼醋酸试验方法（VIAM）筛查1826例,阳性116例,转诊率6.35%,两者相比差异有显著性（χ2=25.50,P〈0.01）。VIA方法活检出血6例,占3.11%,VIAM方法活检出血2例,占1.72%,两者相比,差异无统计学意义。VIA方法筛查,病理诊断相符率9.33%;VIAM方法筛查,质量控制后病理诊断相符率17.24%,两者相比差异有显著意义（χ2=4.2,P=0.04）,其中21例初筛阴性质量控制后阳性病例,经病理诊断检出≥CINⅡ6例。[结论]肉眼醋酸试验需要建立有效的质量控制方法,使用改良的肉眼醋酸试验方法降低了转诊率并有效防止漏诊。筛查质量控制是宫颈癌早诊早治的重要保证。     

醋酸肉眼观察在农村宫颈癌筛查中的应用

目的 探讨醋酸肉眼观察在农村宫颈癌筛查中的应用价值.方法 对中央转移支付项目宫颈癌筛查早诊早治在广东省清远市2008年与2009年两年目标人群宫颈癌筛查的结果进行回顾性分析.两年均应用醋酸染色后肉眼观察(VIA)和碘染色后肉眼观察(VILI)进行宫颈检查,结果异常者进行阴道镜下活检并得到最终的病理学诊断,2009年同时对2008年的目标人群进行复查,同时将该次筛查不同级别病变的检出率与我院妇科宫颈癌筛查结果进行比较.根据病理结果,对病理结果正常及CIN Ⅰ级者为下一年进行复查,CINⅡ级以上者进行治疗.结果 2008年与2009年筛查人群的顺应性分别为38.38%、50.71%,最终经活检病理确诊分别为正常宫颈52例(86.67%)、51例(70.83);CIN Ⅰ5例(8.33%)、11例(15.28%); CINⅡ1例(1.67%)、4例(5.56%);CIN Ⅲ2例(3.33%)、5例(6.94%);宫颈癌0例(0.00%)、1例(1.39%);治疗率分别为33.33%、30.00%.2009年对2008年筛查人群进行复查,复查率12.06%,最终经活检病理确诊分别为正常宫颈2例(33.33%);CINⅠ3例(50.00%);CINⅡ1例(16.67%);CINⅢ0例(0.00%).2008年筛查结果与我院妇科普查宫颈癌筛查结果进行比较差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05),但2009年筛查结果与我院宫颈癌筛查结果进行比较差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).结论 在资源有限、经济不发达的农村地区,肉眼观察是一种经济、有效的筛查方法,建议在农村地区进行推广.同时,做好宫颈癌知识宣教,提高参与率及治疗率,真正达到宫颈癌早诊早治,以降低宫颈癌发病率及死亡率的目的.     

湖北省襄阳市30~64岁妇女宫颈癌和乳腺癌筛查结果分析

目的 了解现阶段湖北省襄阳市妇女宫颈癌和乳腺癌（“两癌”）流行情况及其发病的影响因素。方法 对襄阳市辖区内30~64岁已婚妇女进行问卷调查,收集一般人口学信息、疾病既往史、家族肿瘤史、月经生育史及妇科疾病患病情况等资料。宫颈癌筛查采用高危型HPV初筛,结合液基薄层细胞学检查、阴道镜和病理学检查的逐级筛查手段开展。乳腺癌筛查采用视诊、触诊和彩色多普勒超声进行初筛,结合乳腺钼靶X线及病理学检查的逐级筛查手段开展。结果 2017年全市共有318 067名30~64岁妇女参与了“两癌”筛查,检出非HPV生殖道感染91 143例（28.66%）;子宫良性疾病44 736例（14.06%）;宫颈癌前病变826例（259.69/10万）,其中CINⅡ 385例,CINⅢ 425例,原位腺癌16例;检出宫颈癌79例（24.84/10万）,其中微小浸润癌18例,浸润癌61例;检出良性乳腺疾病44 097例（13.86%）;检出乳腺癌80例（25.27/10万）。影响因素分析提示：年龄、宫颈癌家族史、多孕、绝经年龄较晚和生殖道感染可能为宫颈癌的危险因素,而年龄、较高文化程度和乳腺癌家族史则可能为乳腺癌的危险因素。结论 襄阳市妇女 “两癌”发病处于中等水平,定期的筛查和积极控制高危因素,对“两癌”的防治意义重大。     

醋酸染色法联合碘染色法在宫颈癌筛查中的应用

[目的]评价醋酸染色法（VIA）联合碘染色法（VILI）对农村地区宫颈癌筛查的可行性和价值。[方法]采用VIA/VILI在杭州市萧山区农村28-55岁的妇女人群中开展宫颈癌筛查。VIA或VILI阳性者行阴道镜检查,阴道镜检查阳性者转送上级医院进一步检查。[结果]2007-2009年期间,总筛查1697人次,其中低级别CIN17例、高级别CIN10例、浸润癌2例。[结论]在资源、设备有限的农村地区,VIA/VILI方法对妇女开展宫颈癌及癌前病变的筛查是可行的,有利于宫颈癌的早发现及早诊早治。     

DNA倍体分析系统与阴道镜检查联合应用诊断早期宫颈癌

[目的]探讨DNA倍体分析系统与阴道镜联合应用在早期宫颈癌诊断中的价值。[方法]对110例宫颈上皮细胞DNA倍体分析异常的妇女，在阴道镜下作多点宫颈活体组织病理检查的临床资料进行分析。[结果]DNA倍体异常的110例中，病理诊断为宫颈上皮内瘤变（CIN）或宫颈癌38例，占34．5％。在这38例中，阴道镜图像正常者有3例（占7．9％）；常规细胞学正常者有7例（占18.4％）。[结论]DNA倍体分析系统作为早期宫颈癌筛查新方法，与阴道镜联合应用可提高诊断CIN和早期宫颈癌的敏感性。     

Test characteristics of visual inspection with 4% acetic acid (VIA) and Lugol's iodine (VILI) in cervical cancer screening in Kerala,India

Simple and inexpensive methods based on visual examination of the cervix are currently being investigated as alternative methods of cervical screening. The test characteristics of visual inspection with 4% acetic acid (VIA), and Lugol's iodine (VILI) and conventional cytology were investigated in a cross-sectional study involving 4,444 women aged 25 to 65 years in Kerala, India. While detection of any acetowhite area constituted a low-threshold positive VIA, detection of well-defined, opaque acetowhite lesions close to or touching the squamocolumnar junction constituted a high-threshold positive VIA test. Detection of definite yellow iodine nonuptake areas in the transformation zone close to or touching the squamocolumnar junction constituted a positive VILI test. Cytology was considered positive if reported as atypia or worse lesions. All screened women were evaluated by colposcopy and biopsies were directed in 1,644 women (37.0%), which allowed the direct estimation of sensitivity, specificity and predictive values. The reference diagnosis was based on a combination of histology and/or colposcopy. True disease status was defined as CIN 2 and worse lesions. A total of 149 (3.4%) women had CIN 2 or worse lesions. The sensitivities of low-threshold VIA, high-threshold VIA, VILI and cytology to detect CIN 2 or worse disease were 88.6%, 82.6%, 87.2% and 81.9%, respectively; the corresponding specificities were 78.0%, 86.5%, 84.7% and 87.8%. Our results indicate that VIA and VILI are suitable alternate screening tests to cytology for detecting cervical neoplasia in low-resource settings.     

Pooled analysis of the accuracy of five cervical cancer screening tests assessed in eleven studies in Africa and India

Cervical cancer is the main cancer among women in sub-Saharan Africa, India and other parts of the developing world. Evaluation of screening performance of effective, feasible and affordable early detection and management methods is a public health priority. Five screening methods, naked eye visual inspection of the cervix uteri after application of diluted acetic acid (VIA), or Lugol's iodine (VILI) or with a magnifying device (VIAM), the Pap smear and human papillomavirus testing with the high-risk probe of the Hybrid Capture-2 assay (HC2), were evaluated in 11 studies in India and Africa. More than 58,000 women, aged 25-64 years, were tested with 2-5 screening tests and outcome verification was done on all women independent of the screen test results. The outcome was presence or absence of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) of different degrees or invasive cervical cancer. Verification was based on colposcopy and histological interpretation of colposcopy-directed biopsies. Negative colposcopy was accepted as a truly negative outcome. VIA showed a sensitivity of 79% (95% CI 73-85%) and 83% (95% CI 77-89%), and a specificity of 85% (95% CI 81-89%) and 84% (95% CI 80-88%) for the outcomes CIN2+ or CIN3+, respectively. VILI was on average 10% more sensitive and equally specific. VIAM showed similar results as VIA. The Pap smear showed lowest sensitivity, even at the lowest cutoff of atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (57%; 95% CI 38-76%) for CIN2+ but the specificity was rather high (93%; 95% CI 89-97%). The HC2-assay showed a sensitivity for CIN2+ of 62% (95% CI 56-68%) and a specificity of 94% (95% CI 92-95%). Substantial interstudy variation was observed in the accuracy of the visual screening methods. Accuracy of visual methods and cytology increased over time, whereas performance of HC2 was constant. Results of visual tests and colposcopy were highly correlated. This study was the largest ever done that evaluates the cross-sectional accuracy of screening tests for cervical cancer precursors in developing countries. The merit of the study was that all screened subjects were submitted to confirmatory investigations avoiding to verification bias. A major finding was the consistently higher sensitivity but equal specificity of VILI compared with VIA. Nevertheless, some caution is warranted in the interpretation of observed accuracy measures, since a certain degree of gold standard misclassification cannot be excluded. Because of the correlation between visual screening tests and colposcopy and a certain degree of over-diagnosis of apparent CIN2+ by study pathologists, it is possible that both sensitivity and specificity of VIA and VILI were overestimated. Gold standard verification error could also explain the surprisingly low sensitivity of HC2, which contrasts with findings from other studies.     

Accuracy of the Triple Test Versus Colposcopy for the Diagnosis of Premalignant and Malignant Cervical Lesions

Background: Despite the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations concerning the use of alternative tests for the detection of cervical cancer precursor lesions in low-income countries, the accuracy of these tests is a debated issue. In the present study we compare the diagnostic accuracy of the triple test with that of colposcopy for the diagnosis of premalignant and malignant cervical lesions. Methods: A cross-sectional study was performed in 328 women referred to the gynecology clinic at Shahid Sadoughi Hospital, affiliated to Yazd University of Medical Sciences (SSUMS), Yazd, Iran, from March 2016 to June 2018. As the first step, a Pap smear was obtained from all participants. Visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) and Lugol’s iodine (VILI) was performed in accordance with the known protocol. A colposcopy was then conducted in all participants, biopsy samples were obtained, and histological features studied. Finally, the results were compared by statistical analysis. Results: The age range of the participants was 30 - 50 years. Of 328 women, 60 (18.3 %) were postmenopausal. Two-hundred and five patients (62.5 %) had an abnormal Pap smear, 165 (50.3 %) had abnormal results on colposcopy, and 141 (43 %) had abnormal histopathology reports. The VIA was positive in 129 patients (39.3 %) and the VILI in 177 (54 %). The results of the triple test were reported to be positive in 205 cases (51.52 %). The sensitivity of the triple test in the detection of premalignant and malignant cervical lesions was 78.7 % and 69 %, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of colposcopy in the detection of premalignant and malignant cervical lesions was 80.1 % and 72.2 %, respectively. The diagnostic accuracy of the triple test and colposcopy in the detection of premalignant and malignant cervical lesions was 73 % versus 75 %. Conclusion: Since the results of the study showed that the diagnostic accuracy of the triple test is equivalent that of colposcopy, the former may be used in low-income countries and areas lacking access to colposcopy.     

山西省襄垣县2009~2015年农村女性宫颈癌筛查项目结果分析

[目的]通过分析襄垣县2009～2015年农村妇女宫颈癌筛查结果,为国家宫颈癌筛查项目的评价和优化提供理论依据.[方法]对襄垣县35～64岁妇女开展宫颈癌筛查.2009～2013年采用醋酸/碘染色后肉眼观察(VIA/VILI),2014年开始部分引入人乳头状瘤病毒(HPV)检测,2015年又引入新柏氏液基细胞学(TCT)检测,根据卫生资源情况在不同人群中分别使用三种方法.任意筛查结果阳性者转诊阴道镜,镜下有病变时取活检,以病理诊断为金标准.通过评价不同方法对宫颈上皮内瘤变(CIN)2级及以上病变的检出率评价不同方法对宫颈癌的筛查效果.[结果] 2009～2015年共筛查62 618名女性,其中CIN2级及以上(CIN2+)病变的患病率为0.76％,早诊率为90.53％,下生殖道感染率为25.68％,其中滴虫性阴道炎、细菌性阴道炎和宫颈炎与HPV感染相关.根据2014及2015年数据,VIA/VILI的CIN2+病变检出率为0.74％,TCT的病变检出率为0.70％,两者相似,但均低于HPV检测,其病变检出率为1.37％.[结论]HPV检测是首选的宫颈癌初筛方法,在资源匮乏地区,培训合格的基层医生使用VIA/VILI或TCT方法对适龄妇女开展宫颈癌筛查是有效的备选方案.     

山西省襄垣县宫颈癌和乳腺癌联合筛查效果初探

目的 通过分析为国家宫颈癌和乳腺癌筛查提供基本评价数据.方法 2009～2010年山西省襄垣县妇幼保健院对该县30～59岁妇女通过醋酸/碘染色后肉眼观察方法开展宫颈癌筛查,阳性者转诊阴道镜,镜下有病变时取活检,以病理诊断为金标准.对35～59岁的妇女开展乳腺癌筛查,以临床检查法为初筛方法,怀疑阳性者通过超声或乳腺X线进行诊断.结果 2009年完成1993名妇女的宫颈癌筛查,其中宫颈上皮内瘤变2级(CIN2)及以上病变的患病率为1.6%,早诊率为100%,第2年复查率为91%,仅查出1例CIN2,未查出更高病变,早诊率达100%.完成1819名妇女的乳腺癌筛查,乳腺良性病变9例(4.02%),良性肿瘤3例(1.34%);2010年完成2026名妇女的乳腺癌筛查,良性病变103例(13.57%),良性肿瘤14例(1.84%),可疑恶性1例.结论 该县宫颈癌的筛查效果明显,乳腺癌筛查仍需加强技术培训.筛查体系和技术队伍建设是基层单位承担农村妇女健康保健服务的关键.     

Accuracy of visual screening for cervical neoplasia: Results from an IARC multicentre study in India and Africa

Visual inspection-based screening tests, such as visual inspection with 4% acetic acid (VIA) and with Lugol's iodine (VILI), have been proposed as alternatives to cytology in mass screening programs. To date, there is only limited information on the accuracy of these tests in detecting High-grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions (HSIL). Eleven cross-sectional studies involving 56,939 women aged 25-65 years were conducted in Burkina Faso, Congo, Guinea, India, Mali and Niger to evaluate the accuracy of VIA and VILI performed by health workers. A common protocol and questionnaire was used. For final diagnosis, all women were investigated with colposcopy and biopsies were taken when necessary. Data from the studies were pooled to calculate sensitivity, specificity and predictive values of the tests for the detection of HSIL. Of the screened women, 16.1% and 16.4% were positive on examination using, respectively, VIA and VILI; 1,063 were diagnosed with HSIL. The pooled sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values for VIA were 76.8% (95% CI: 74.2-79.4%), 85.5% (95% CI: 85.2-85.8%), 9.4% (95% CI:8.8-10.8%) and 99.5% (95% CI:99.4-99.6%), respectively. The values were 91.7% (95% CI: 89.7-93.4%), 85.4% (95% CI: 85.1-85.7%), 10.9% (95% CI: 10.2-11.6%) and 99.8% (95% CI:99.7-99.9%), respectively for VILI. The range of sensitivity and specificity for VIA was 56.1-93.9% and 74.2-93.8%, respectively, between studies and were 76.0-97.0 % and 73.0-91.3% for VILI. VILI had a significantly higher sensitivity than VIA in detecting HSIL, but specificity was similar. VILI appears to be a more accurate visual test for use in screening and treatment programs in low-resource settings.     

Comparison between Visual Inspection of Cervix and Cytology Based Screening Procedures in Bangladesh

Background: Cervical cancer continues to be a major problem in Bangladesh with approximately 18,000 newcases annually of which over 10,000 women die from it. Visual inspection of the cervix after 3-5% acetic acid(VIA) application is a simple and easy to learn method for cervical cancer screening, although cytology-basedscreening is more often applied in developed countries where it has successfully reduced the prevalence of cervicalcancer. Objective: To compare the efficacy of VIA and cytology-based primary methods for cervical cancerscreening in Bangladesh. Materials and Methods: This hospital based comparative study was conducted at theVIA centre and Colposcopy Clinic of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University (BSMMU) from October2008 to October 2010. Results: Among 650 women, 74 (11.4%) were VIA+ve and 8 (1.2%) had abnormalitiesin their Pap smear reports. During colposcopy, 38 (7.7%) women had different grades of CIN and 4 (0.6%)had cervical cancer. The gold standard histology findings proved 20 women had CIN I, 14 had CIN II/II and 4had cervical cancer. Among the 38 histology diagnosed abnormalities, VIA test could identify 30 abnormalitiesincluding two cervical cancers. However, Pap smear could detect only 8 cases of histological abnormalities (2low grade and 6 had high grade lesion) and it missed all the cervical cancer cases. The sensitivity and specificityof VIA were 88.9% and 52.1%. The positive predictive value (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) were41.0%, and 92.6% respectively. Moreover, the sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV of Pap smear were 33.3%,95.8%, 75.0% and 79.3%, respectively. Conclusions: VIA test should be used as the primary screening tool evenwith its low sensitivity and specificity in low resource countries like Bangladesh. False positive results may begreater, but overtreatment can be minimized by colposcopy evaluation of the VIA positive women.     

Accuracy of concurrent visual and cytology screening in detecting cervical cancer precursors in rural India

The high burden of cervical cancer and inadequate/suboptimal cytology screening in developing countries led to the evaluation of visual screening tests, like visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) and Lugol's iodine (VILI). We describe the performance of VIA, VILI and cytology, carried out in a multinational project called "Screening Technologies to Advance Rapid Testing" in 5,519 women aged 30-49 years, in detecting cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN). VIA, VILI and cytology were positive in 16.9%, 15.6% and 6.1% women, respectively. We found 57 cases of CIN2, 55 of CIN3 and 12 of cervical cancer; 90% of CIN3 and 43% CIN2 cases were positive for p16 overexpression and high-risk HPV infection, indicating a high validity of histological diagnosis. The sensitivity of VIA, VILI and cytology to detect high-grade CIN were 64.5%, 64.5% and 67.7%, respectively; specificities were 84.2%, 85.5% and 95.4%. A high proportion of p16 positive CIN 3 (93.8%) and 2 (76.9%) were positive on cytology compared with visual tests (68.8% and 53.8%, respectively) indicating a higher sensitivity of cytology to detect p16 positive high-grade CIN. However, the immediate availability of the results from the visual tests permits diagnosis and/or treatment to be performed in the same sitting, which can potentially reduce loss to follow-up when women must be recalled following positive cytology. Organizing visual screening services in low-resource countries may facilitate the gradual building of an infrastructure committed to screening allowing the eventual introduction of more sensitive, highly objective, reproducible and affordable human papillomavirus screening tests in future.     

Visual inspection as a cervical cancer screening method in a primary health care setting in Africa

We evaluated the feasibility and performance of visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) and Lugol's iodine (VILI) for cervical cancer screening in a primary health-care setting in Kinshasa, Congo. Women (1,528) aged > or =30 years were screened independently by nurses and physicians by VIA and VILI and Pap cytology. Biopsy samples were obtained from women with abnormal colposcopies and from 290 randomly chosen women with normal colposcopy. Cytological and histological examinations were performed in Lyon and Montreal, respectively. The prevalence of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) of grades 1, 2 and 3 was 4.5, 1.3 and 4%, respectively. Using biopsy as the reference, the sensitivity, specificity and negative predictive value (NPV) for > or =CIN 2 for VIA-nurse were 55.5% (95% CI: 34.7-76.2), 64.6% (95% CI: 62.0-67.1) and 96.8% (95% CI: 93.5-98.7), respectively. The corresponding values for VILI-nurse were 44.0% (95% CI: 24.2-63.8), 74.6% (95% CI: 72.3-76.9) and 96.7% (95% CI: 93.7-98.6). The equivalent parameters for physicians were 71.1% (95% CI: 46.7-95.5), 71.3% (95% CI: 68.9-73.6) and 98.6% (95% CI: 96.0-99.7) for VIA and 68.3% (95% CI: 42.5-94.0), 76.2% (95% CI: 74.0-78.4) and 97.2% (95% CI: 95.3-98.5) for VILI. The sensitivity of cytology ranged between 31 and 72%, depending on the abnormality threshold used to define positivity, with a corresponding specificity range of 94-99% and a NPV range of 97-99%. Our results show that VIA and VILI performed by nurses and physicians are slightly more sensitive but less specific than Pap cytology across multiple combinations of test and lesion thresholds. Given their lower cost and easy deployment, visual inspection methods merit further assessment as cervical cancer screening methods for low-resource countries.