Effect of epidural analgesia in patients with traumatic rib fractures: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Purpose

A consensus group recently proposed epidural analgesia as the optimal analgesic modality for patients with multiple traumatic rib fractures. However, its beneficial effects are not consistently recognized in the literature. We performed a systematic review and a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCT) of epidural analgesia in adult patients with traumatic rib fractures.

Methods

A systematic search strategy was applied to MEDLINE, EMBASE, the Cochrane Library and to the annual meeting of relevant societies (up to July 2008). All randomized controlled trials comparing epidural analgesia with other analgesic modalities in adult patients with traumatic rib fractures were included. Primary outcomes were mortality, ICU length of stay (LOS), hospital LOS and duration of mechanical ventilation.

Results

Eight studies (232 patients) met eligibility criteria. Epidural analgesia did not significantly affect mortality (odds ratio [OR] 1.6, 95% CI, 0.3, 9.3, 3 studies, n = 89), ICU LOS (weighted mean difference [WMD] ?3.7 days, 95% CI, ?11.4, 4.0, 4 studies, n = 135), hospital LOS (WMD ?6.7, 95% CI, ?19.8, 6.4, 4 studies, n = 140) or duration of mechanical ventilation (WMD ?7.5, 95% CI, ?16.3, 1.2, 3 studies, n = 101). Duration of mechanical ventilation was decreased when only studies using thoracic epidural analgesia with local anesthetics were evaluated (WMD ?4.2, 95% CI, ?5.5, ?2.9, 2 studies, n = 73). However, hypotension was significantly associated with the use of thoracic epidural analgesia with local anesthetics (OR 13.76, 95% CI, 2.89, 65.51, 3 studies, n = 99).

Conclusions

No significant benefit of epidural analgesia on mortality, ICU and hospital LOS was observed compared to other analgesic modalities in adult patients with traumatic rib fractures. However, there may be a benefit on the duration of mechanical ventilation with the use of thoracic epidural analgesia with local anesthetics. Further research is required to evaluate the benefits and harms of epidural analgesia in this population before being considered as a standard of care therapy.     

Potential Benefits of Rib Fracture Fixation in Patients with Flail Chest and Multiple Non-flail Rib Fractures

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the potential benefits of rib fracture fixation in patients with flail chest and multiple non-flail rib fractures versus conventional treatment modalities. A retrospective reviewed study compared 86 cases which received surgical treatment between June 2009 and May 2013 to 76 cases which received conservative treatment between January 2006 and May 2009. The patients were divided into the flail chest (n?=?38) and multiple non-flail rib fracture groups (n?=?124). In the flail chest group, the mechanical ventilation time, ICU monitoring time, tracheostomies, thoracic deformity, and impaired pulmonary function and return to full-time employment were compared. In the multiple non-flail rib fracture group, fracture healing, visual analog scale (VAS) pain score, inpatient length of stay, atelectatic, pulmonary complications, and normal activity-returning time were compared. Patients in the flail chest operative fixation group had significantly shorter ICU stay, decreased ventilator requirements, fewer tracheostomies, less thoracic deformity and impaired pulmonary function, and more returned to full-time employment. Patients in the multiple non-flail rib fracture operative fixation had shorter hospital stay, less pain, earlier return to normal activity, more fracture healing, less atelectasis, and fewer pulmonary infections. This study demonstrates the potential benefits of surgical stabilization of flail chest and multiple non-flail rib fractures with plate fixation. When compared with conventional conservative management, operatively managed patients demonstrated improved clinical outcomes.     

The Usefulness of Early Surgical Rib Stabilization in Flail Chest

Background : Flail chest is a clinical condition observed in patients with blunt thorax trauma. Surgical stabilization methods performed on selected patients shorten the durations of mechanical ventilation and intensive care monitoring and significantly reduce the rates of ventilator-associated morbidity and mortality.

Material and Method : Patients treated and diagnosed with flail chest between 2009 and 2014 were studied retrospectively.

Results : There were two groups: 10 patients in the group treated surgically and 10 patients in the group treated non-surgically. The groups were similar in terms of age, ISS score, degree of pulmonary contusion, number of rib fractures and location of flail chest. There were no significant differences between the stabilization and non-surgical therapy groups in hospitalization and mechanical ventilation period, tracheostomies, hospital costs and mortality. However, there were significant differences in the intensive care period. The number of the patients who developed pneumonia was significantly lower in the stabilization group, and the difference was statistically significant.

Conclusion : Early surgical rib stabilization in flail chest is a safe treatment method which has a low complication rate and can reduce the morbidity and mortality which develop from mechanical ventilation.     

Clinical outcomes of multiple rib fractures: does age matter?

Purpose

To evaluate the clinical outcomes of multiple rib fracture due to blunt trauma in young patients, a 3-year retrospective study was conducted. Patients with ≥3 rib fractures were divided into two groups (group I: <45 years old and group II: ≥45 years old). Mortality, hospital stay, ventilatory support, chest tubes insertion and associated injuries were studied.

Results

Of the 902 patients admitted with blunt chest trauma, 240 (27 %) met the inclusion criteria and 72.5 % patients were <45 years old. The most common causes of injury were motor vehicle crash (59 %) and fall (29 %). The Injury Severity Score (ISS) was higher in group I (16 ± 9 vs. 13 ± 6; p = 0.04). Hospital mortality was higher in group II (6 vs. 2 %; p = 0.18). Pneumothorax, haemothorax and ventilatory support were comparable. Patients in group II were more likely to undergo chest tubes insertion (26 vs. 14 %; p = 0.04), while group I had a significantly higher incidence of associated abdominal injuries (25 vs. 12 %; p = 0.03).

Conclusion

Old age presenting with rib fractures is associated with higher mortality in comparison to young age; however, this difference becomes statistically insignificant in the presence of multiple rib fracture.     

Factores pronóstico del traumatismo torácico: estudio prospectivo de 500 pacientes

ObjectiveIdentify the factors of greatest impact in patients with chest trauma.Patients and methodsprospective study of 500 patients (425 men and 75 women) with chest trauma treated between January 2006 and December 2008. The parameters assessed include the degree of trauma, the abbreviated injury scale (AIS), the injury severity score (ISS), pre-hospital intubation, duration of mechanical ventilation, stay in the intensive care unit (ICU), number of rib fractures, presence of pulmonary contusion, haemothorax and cardio-pulmonary effects.ResultsThe presence of polytrauma, the number of rib fractures, the presence of flail chest, pulmonary contusion, the delay in mechanical ventilation and age were shown to be effective markers of severity.ConclusionsThoracic injuries have a number of indicators of severity. The mortality risk is associated with an ISS >25, the presence of 3 or more rib fractures with flail chest, pulmonary contusion, the development of ARDS, and with an age >55 years.     

Surgical stabilization of flail chest: the impact on postoperative pulmonary function

Objectives

Flail chest results in significant morbidity. Controversies continue regarding the optimal management of flail chest. No clear guidelines exist for surgical stabilization. Our aim was to examine the association of bedside spirometry values with operative stabilization of flail chest.

Methods

IRB approval was obtained to identify patients with flail chest who underwent surgical stabilization between August 2009 and May 2011. At our institution, all rib fracture patients underwent routine measurement of their forced vital capacity (FVC) using bedside spirometry. Formal pulmonary function tests were also obtained postoperatively and at three months in patients undergoing stabilization. Both the Synthes and Acute Innovations plating systems were utilized. Data is presented as median (range) or (percentage).

Results

Twenty patients (13 male: 65 %) with median age of 60 years (30–83) had a median of four ribs (2–9) in the flail segment. The median Injury Severity Score was 17 (9–41) and the median Trauma and Injury Severity Score was 0.96 (0.04–0.99). Preoperative pneumonia was identified in four patients (20 %) and intubation was required in seven (35 %). Median time from injury to stabilization was four days (1–33). The median number of plates inserted was five (3–11). Postoperative median FVC (1.8 L, range 1.3–4 L) improved significantly as compared to preoperative median value (1 L, range 0.5–2.1 L) (p = 0.003). This improvement continued during the follow-up period at three months (0.9 L, range 0.1–3.0) (p = 0.006). There were three deaths (15 %), none of which were related to the procedure. Subsequent tracheostomy was required in three patients (15 %). The mean hospital stay and ventilator days after stabilization were nine days and three days, respectively. Mean follow-up was 5.6 ± 4.6 months.

Conclusion

Operative stabilization of flail chest improved pulmonary function compared with preoperative results. This improvement was sustained at three months follow-up.     

Clinical results of selective treatment for flail chest

A better understanding in pathophysiology of flail chest has brought an evolution to the principles of it's management. The methods of stabilization changed from surgical to pneumatic measures and now, a concept of conservative treatment is recognized. Adhering to our protocol for flail chest, which essentially limits mechanical ventilation, we have prospectively treated 36 patients since 1981. The patient were divided into two groups according to their need for mechanical ventilation. There were 16 patients (44.4%) in a group treated in conservative manner and with no mechanical ventilation (Group A). There were 20 patients (55.6%) in a group treated by mechanical ventilation (Group B). Group A had 6.2% incidence of pneumonia, 3.6 days average stay in ICU and mortality rate of 0%. Group B had 75% pneumonia, 22.5 days average in ICU and 15% mortality. Group B patients required respiratory support for 14 days average, which was not reduced by surgical stabilization. Restrictive pulmonary disturbance in group A was milder than that of group B, and this again was not affected by surgical stabilization. We conclude that 40% of flail chest are controllable without mechanical ventilation and that the result of this conservative therapy is superior to any other treatments.     

Rib stabilization: lessons learned

Introduction

The management of rib fractures and flail chest has changed considerably over the past century, and recently there has been a renewed interest in operative rib stabilization for these injuries. Despite numerous reports suggesting improved outcomes with rib stabilization, there are not well-defined indications and the approach remains somewhat controversial.

Materials and methods

The authors reflect on their experience of performing rib stabilization in over 100 patients with rib fractures and flail chest.

Conclusion

The authors offer their opinions on this operation with respect to rationale, indications, timing, technique, and postoperative care.     

Evaluation of efficacy and indications of surgical fixation for multiple rib fractures: a propensity-score matched analysis

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of recent surgical rib fixation and establish its indications not only for flail chest but also for multiple rib fractures.

Methods

Between 2007 and 2015, 187 patients were diagnosed as having multiple rib fractures in our institution. After the propensity score matching was performed, ten patients who had performed surgical rib fixation and ten patients who had treated with non-operative management were included. Categorical variables were analyzed with Fischer’s exact test and non-parametric numerical data were compared using the Mann–Whitney U test. Wilcoxon signed-rank test was performed for comparison of pre- and postoperative variables. All statistical data are presented as median (25–75 % interquartile range [IQR]) or number.

Results

The surgically treated patients extubated significantly earlier than non-operative management patients (5.5 [1–8] vs 9 [7–12] days: p = 0.019). The duration of continuous intravenous narcotic agents infusion days (4.5 [3–6] vs 12 [9–14] days: p = 0.002) and the duration of intensive care unit stay (6.5 [3–9] vs 12 [8–14] days: p = 0.008) were also significantly shorter in surgically treated patients. Under the same ventilating conditions, the postoperative values of tidal volume and respiratory rate improved significantly compared to those values measured just before the surgery. The incidence of pneumonia as a complication was significantly higher in non-operative management group (p = 0.05).

Conclusions

From the viewpoints of early respiratory stabilization and intensive care unit disposition without any complications, surgical rib fixation is a sufficiently acceptable procedure not only for flail chest but also for repair of severe multiple rib fractures.

     

The unstable thoracic wall: possibilities for treatment

In the treatment of severe chest injuries with flail chest either positive-pressure mechanical ventilation (and tracheostomy) is necessary or the surgical stabilisation of the chest wall by osteosyntheses of the broken ribs. Fourteen patients (age 27-73) with severe chest injuries and paradoxical respiration were operated and the rib fractures stabilized by means of small reconstruction plates and cerclage wires. Three patients died due to other reasons. There were no serious complications. The results are reported. In severe chest injuries surgical treatment seems to be justified; it reduces the need of artificial respiration and can be recommended.     

Deferred Primary Anastomosis Versus Diversion in Patients with Severe Secondary Peritonitis Managed with Staged Laparotomies

Background

There is inconclusive data on whether critically ill individuals with severe secondary peritonitis requiring multiple staged laparotomies may became eligible candidates for deferred primary anastomoses (DPA). We sought to compare a protocol for DPA against a protocol for diversion in severely ill critical patients with intra-abdominal sepsis.

Methods

A retrospective cohort study was performed examining 112 patients admitted through an ICU between 2002 and 2006, with diagnosis of secondary peritonitis and managed with staged laparotomies whom required small- or large-bowel segment resections. Patients were categorized and compared according to the surgical treatment necessitated to resolve the secondary peritonitis (DPA versus diversion). Outcome measures were days on mechanical ventilation, days required in ICU, days required in hospital, incidence of fistulas/leakages, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and mortality.

Results

There were 34 patients subjected to DPA and 78 to diversion. Fistulas/leakages developed in three patients (8.8%) with DPA and four patients (5.1%) with diversion (p = 0.359). ARDS was present in 6 patients (17.6%) with DPA and 24 patients (30.8%) with diversion (p = 0.149). There were 30 patients (88.2%) with DPA and 65 patients (83.3%) with diversion discharged alive (p = 0.51). There were not statistical significant differences between groups among survivors regarding hospital length of stay, ICU length of stay, and days on mechanical ventilation.

Conclusions

We did not find significant differences in morbidity or mortality when we compared DPA versus diversion surgical treatment. It is feasible to perform a primary anastomosis in critically ill patients with severe secondary peritonitis managed with staged laparotomies.     

The stove-in chest: a complex flail chest injury

The stove-in chest is a rare form of flail chest in which there is collapse of a segment of the chest wall, associated with a high immediate mortality. A 65-year-old male pedestrian was admitted with severe chest pain and dyspnoea, after being struck by a car. The initial chest radiograph demonstrated multiple right-sided rib fractures and pulmonary contusion. His gas exchange was good, and after pain relief via an epidural catheter was achieved, an intercostal drain was inserted into the right hemi-thorax. Clinically apparent deformation of the chest then occurred. A further chest radiograph confirmed the stove-in chest. The patient remained well initially, but on day 5 he deteriorated precipitously with respiratory failure, and signs of systemic sepsis. He died despite maximal ventilatory and inotropic support on the Intensive Care Unit (ICU). Post-mortem examination demonstrated congested, oedematous lungs with a right-sided empyema. The management of complex flail chest injuries requires treatment to be tailored to the individual patient. Early ventilatory support, despite good gas exchange, may have closed down the pleural space prevented the empyema. Prophylactic ventilation and possibly surgical stabilisation of the chest wall should be considered early in the course of admission, even when the conventional parameters to indicate ventilation are not met.     

预成型肋骨锁定钛板联合超声引导下胸椎旁神经阻滞治疗老年多发性肋骨骨折

目的:探讨预成型肋骨锁定钛板内固定手术与超声引导下胸椎旁神经阻滞联合应用对于老年多发性肋骨骨折患者的疗效。方法:回顾性分析2016年2月至2020年11月收治的221例老年多发性肋骨骨折患者,根据是否手术治疗,分为预成型肋骨锁定钛板联合超声引导下胸椎旁神经阻滞组(手术组)102例,保守治疗组(非手术组)119 例。手术组中男58 例,女44 例;年龄60~85(67.2±3.6)岁;肋骨骨折3~12(5.3±2.1)处。非手术组中男66 例,女53 例;年龄60~84 (66.8±3.2)岁;肋骨骨折2~11 (6.1±2.3)处。比较分析两组患者的临床资料、治疗效果及并发症情况。结果:两组患者术前临床资料比较,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05),所有患者顺利出院。手术组患者肺部感染(P=0.028),肺不张(P=0.032),呼吸衰竭(P=0.026),主动下床时间(P=0.040),骨折愈合时间(P=0.035),住院时间(P=0.043),治疗后3 d疼痛视觉模拟评分(visual analogue scale,VAS)(P=0.028),治疗后5 d VAS (P=0.032),治疗后7 d VAS (P=0.019),术后3个月最大自主通气量(maximal voluntary ventilation,MVV)(P=0.042),1 s用力呼气容积(forced expiratory volume in one second,FEV1)(P=0.035)以及术后6个月MVV(P=0.021),FEV1(P=0.026)均优于非手术治疗组。结论:对于老年严重多发肋骨骨折的患者,预成型肋骨锁定钛板与超声引导下胸椎旁神经阻滞的联合应用与非手术治疗相比较,能够及时有效镇痛,恢复胸廓稳定性,缩短住院时间,减少肺部感染及急性呼吸窘迫综合征(acute respiratory distress syndrome,ARDS) 等并发症的发生率。预成型肋骨锁定钛板治疗老年多发性肋骨骨折具有较好的临床效果。     

Historic overview of treatment techniques for rib fractures and flail chest

Introduction  

From the beginning of the twentieth century till the current time, an overview is presented of the surgical treatment for rib fractures and flail chest.     

Thoracic trauma severity contributes to differences in intensive care therapy and mortality of severely injured patients: analysis based on the TraumaRegister DGU®

Background

Thoracic trauma is a relevant source of comorbidity throughout multiply-injured patient care. We aim to determine a measurable influence of chest trauma’s severity on early resuscitation, intensive care therapy, and mortality in severely injured patients.

Methods

Patients documented between 2002 and 2012 in the TraumaRegister DGU®, aged ≥?16 years, injury severity score (ISS) ≥ 16 are analyzed. Isolated brain injury and severe head injury led to exclusion. Subgroups are formed using the Abbreviated Injury Scale_Thorax.

Results

Twenty-two thousand five hundred sixty-five patients were predominantly male (74%) with mean age of 45.7 years (SD 19.3), blunt trauma (95%), mean ISS 25.6 (SD 9.6). Overall mean intubation period was 5.6 days (SD 10.7). Surviving patients were discharged from the ICU after a mean of about 5 days following extubation. Thoracic trauma severity (AIS_Thorax ≥ 4) and fractures to the thoracic cage significantly prolonged the ventilation period. Additionally, fractures extended the ICU stay significantly. Suffering from more than one thoracic injury was associated with a mean of 1–2 days longer intubation period and longer ICU stay. Highest rates of sepsis, respiratory, and multiple organ failure occurred in patients with critical compared to lesser thoracic trauma severity.

Conclusion

Thoracic trauma severity in multiply-injured patients has a measurable impact on rates of respiratory and multiple organ failure, sepsis, mortality, time of mechanical ventilation, and ICU stay.

     

Trauma Evaluation of Patients with Chest Injury in the 2008 Earthquake of Wenchuan, Sechuan, China

Background

The purpose of the present study was twofold: to summarize the characteristics of trauma patients with thoracic injury in the 2008 earthquake of Wenchuan, Sichuan, China, and to validate the accuracy of the Injury Severity Score (ISS), the New Injury Severity Score (NISS), and the Chest Injury Index (CII) in prediction of respiratory failure.

Methods

A group of 1,823 patients injured in the earthquake of Wenchuan were transferred to West China Hospital, Sichuan University, between May 12 and May 27, 2008. Of these 1,823 patients, 184 (10.1%) had suffered chest injury. They were enrolled in this cohort study. The risk factors of respiratory failure were analyzed with unconditional Logistic Regression. The predictive accuracies of ISS, NISS, and CII were compared with Receiver Operator Characteristic (ROC) curves.

Results

Of the group of patients with chest injuries, 156 (84.78%) had suffered injury to more than one organ, and 38 developed respiratory failure, for an incidence of 20.65%. The duration of mechanical ventilation ranged from 3 to 72 days (mean: 18.82 ± 15.94 days). The occurrence of flail chest, pulmonary contusion, and crush syndrome was shown to be the risk factor for respiratory failure. There are statistical differences in area under the ROC curve between NISS and the other two trauma scores in prediction of respiratory failure. The best cut-off point of NISS is 24, with a sensitivity of 94.74% and specificity of 79.45%.

Conclusions

Chest injury in earthquake is often accompanied with multiple injuries. The incidence of respiratory failure is high. The NISS can accurately predict the development of respiratory failure in chest injury patients. We recommend that NISS should be considered as a useful tool for trauma evaluation.     

Surgical stabilization of multiple rib fractures successfully achieved with the use of long metalic plates

Surgical stabilization of multiple rib fractures in 5 male patients was successfully achieved with the use of orthopedic A-O metalic plates, which are called reconstruction plates. In each patient, we prevented deformity of the rib cage and flail chest which frequently occurs after multiple rib fractures. Three of these patients received emergency operations because of severe hemopneumothorax and flail chest due to crushing injuries to the chest. They were treated by the standard thoracotomy, hemostasis of intrapleural bleeding, and stabilization of fractured ribs with reconstruction plates, in addition two of the patients underwent a single lobectomy to control the pulmonary hemorrhage. Another two patients were treated with mechanical ventilation and closed-tube thoracotomy following the chest trauma because their thoracic bleeding from drainage tubes was tolerable. But flail chest and respiratory insufficiency did not improve, in spite of positive controlled ventilation as a mode of internal pneumatic stabilization. Then surgical stabilization of the fractured ribs with these plates was carried out ten to twelve days after the accidents in each case. All patients tolerated the surgical procedures well and were successfully removed from the respirator, demonstrating complete stability of the chest wall. The long metal reconstruction plates with many perforations were very useful for the external fixation of segmentary fractured ribs as an external brace. This was because they were long enough to cover the whole length of the fractured ribs and moderately soft enough to be appropriately bent or twisted by hand at the time of operation. Moreover a number of holes in it allowed the suture to pass through the plate and rib, avoiding displacement of the prosthesis. This is the first report which describes the usefulness of orthopedic reconstruction plates for the stabilization of multiple rib fractures.     

Thrombocytopenia in the critically ill: prevalence, incidence, risk factors, and clinical outcomes

Purpose

The aim of this cohort study was to describe the prevalence, incidence, and risk factors for thrombocytopenia in the intensive care unit (ICU) and to evaluate the impact of thrombocytopenia on mortality with further comparisons amongst major diagnostic categories.

Methods

Patients admitted to the ICU from 1997-2011 for cardiac, medical, surgical, and trauma conditions were included. The presence of a platelet count < 100 × 10⁹·L^?1 on admission day or its appearance during ICU stay were considered as prevalent and incident thrombocytopenia, respectively. Risk factors for thrombocytopenia and the influence of thrombocytopenia on mortality were also analyzed.

Results

This study included 20,696 patients. Prevalent and incident thrombocytopenia occurred in 13.3% and 7.8% of patients, respectively, with associated mortality rates of 14.3% and 24.7%, respectively, compared with 10.2% in the group with normal platelet count (P < 0.001). After adjustments, thrombocytopenia remained associated with an increased risk of mortality (odds ratio 1.25; 95% confidence interval 1.20 to 1.31; P < 0.001). The greatest impact of thrombocytopenia on mortality was observed in the cancer, respiratory, digestive, genitourinary, and infectious diagnostic categories. Independent risk factors included age, female sex, admission platelet counts and hemoglobin, mechanical ventilation, days of hospitalization prior to ICU admission, liver cirrhosis, hypersplenism, coronary bypass grafting, intra-aortic balloon pump placement, acute hepatitis, septic shock, and pulmonary embolism or deep vein thrombosis.

Conclusions

Thrombocytopenia in the ICU is associated with an independent risk of mortality that varies greatly depending on diagnostic admission category.