Pain relief after major ankle and hindfoot surgery with repetitive peripheral nerve blocks: A feasibility study

Background

Major ankle and hindfoot surgery (e.g., ankle, triple and subtalar arthrodesis) typically causes severe postoperative pain, especially the first two postoperative days. Current modalities of postoperative analgesic treatment often include continuous peripheral nerve blocks of the saphenous and sciatic nerves via catheters in order to extend the duration of pain- and opioid-free nerve blockade to 48 h. Unfortunately, the 48 h-efficacy of continuous infusion via a catheter is reduced by a high displacement rate. We hypothesised that one-time repetition of the single injection peripheral nerve blocks would provide effective analgesia with a low opioid consumption the first 48 postoperative hours.

Methods

Eleven subjects preoperatively received a popliteal sciatic and a saphenous single injection nerve block with a protracted local anaesthetic mixture. Surgery was performed under general anaesthesia. The one-time repetition of the single injection nerve block was carried out approximately 24 h after the primary nerve block. The main outcomes were pain and cumulative opioid consumption during the first 48 postoperative hours.

Results

Nine of the 11 (82%) patients had effective analgesia without opioids during the first 48 postoperative hours. Two patients each required a single dose of 7.5 mg of oral morphine equivalents after 43 h.

Conclusion

One-time repetition of single injection saphenous and sciatic nerve blocks consistently provided effective analgesia practically without opioids for 48 h after major elective ankle and hindfoot surgery.     

Continuous peripheral nerve blockade in lower extremity surgery

Peripheral nerve blocks afford numerous benefits for lower extremity surgery. There is growing interest in continuous peripheral nerve blocks, mainly for treatment of postoperative pain, a field that represents a challenge to the anaesthesiologist. This paper seeks to review the efficacy of continuous lower limb blocks for postoperative pain relief. Not only do continuous peripheral nerve blocks afford specificity of analgesic area but current research has shown that they enhance postoperative analgesia and patient satisfaction. New techniques and devices are increasingly appearing, and catheters are constantly being developed and improved; an example being the stimulating catheter, which represents one of the newest advances in this area. The above techniques show that continuous postoperative analgesia with catheters in the lower extremities is not only possible, but indeed provides sustained effective postoperative analgesia, reduces use of opioids, and improves rehabilitation and patient well-being with minimal side-effects. These techniques could prove an alternative to postoperative pain treatment following ambulatory surgery.     

Head and neck blocks in children: an anatomical and procedural review

Children undergo a variety of neurosurgical, otorhinolaryngology and plastic surgery procedures to the head and neck. Although opioids are utilized for pain control, they are associated with adverse side effects including postoperative nausea and vomiting, respiratory depression, somnolence and itching. The utilization of peripheral nerve blocks provides analgesia while reducing the need for opioids. This review will provide a summary of a variety of commonly used head and neck nerve blocks in children with a brief anatomical and technical summary.     

Fast-track regional anaesthesia

Regional anaesthesia plays an important role in day case surgery because it combines reliable effects with low risk and the possibility of local postoperative analgesia without systemic side-effects. Fast-track regional anaesthesia allows short-term postoperative surveillance or even bypassing the post-anaesthesia care unit. Peripheral nerve blocks provide long-lasting pain relief, and can accelerate timely discharge if a persisting motor block is accepted. Multiple peripheral nerve stimulation and injection techniques may help to realize differential blockades with a pronounced analgesic rather than a motor blocking effect. Nerve blocks with local anaesthetics in combination with alpha2-adrenoceptor agonists or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and short-acting parenteral opioids represent an effective multimodal concept for ambulatory surgery.     

Ultrasound-guided ankle block. History revisited

Following forefoot surgery, compared to the traditional multimodal approach, regional anesthesia and analgesia provides high quality pain relief, decreases opioids consumption and leads to very high satisfaction scores. Traditional regional techniques relied either on wound infiltration, landmark technique ankle blocks or popliteal sciatic nerve block. Numerous anatomic variations of the different nerves might lead to failure following a blind technique.The current evolution towards ambulatory care will push surgical teams to favor techniques that simplify postoperative treatment and encourages immediate ambulation.The development of Ultrasound Guided Blocks has enabled us to perform very selective and precise nerve blocks.Ankle blocks provide excellent intraoperative anesthesia as well as long postoperative pain relief. Complications are rare using regional anesthesia for postoperative analgesia even after extensive foot surgery.Revival of ankle blocks is a perfect example of the high impact of new technological advances in improving ambulatory surgical care after foot surgery.     

Does continuous peripheral nerve block provide superior pain control to opioids? A meta-analysis

Although most randomized clinical trials conclude that the addition of continuous peripheral nerve blockade (CPNB) decreases postoperative pain and opioid-related side effects when compared with opioids, studies have included relatively small numbers of patients and the majority failed to show statistical significance during all time periods for reduced pain or side effects. We identified studies primarily by searching Ovid Medline (1966-May 21, 2004) for terms related to postoperative analgesia with CPNB and opioids. Each article from the final search was reviewed and data were extracted from tables, text, or extrapolated from figures as needed. Nineteen articles, enrolling 603 patients, met all inclusion criteria. Inclusion criteria were a clearly defined anesthetic technique (combined general/regional anesthesia, general anesthesia alone, peripheral nerve block), randomized trial, adult patient population (> or =18 yr old), CPNB (or analgesia) used postoperatively (intrapleural catheters were deemed not to be classified as a peripheral nerve catheter), and opioids administered for postoperative analgesia in groups not receiving peripheral nerve block. Perineural analgesia provided better postoperative analgesia compared with opioids (P < 0.001). This effect was seen for all time periods measured for both mean visual analog scale and maximum visual analog scale at 24 h (P < 0.001), 48 h (P < 0.001), and 72 h (mean visual analog scale only) (P < 0.001) postoperatively. Perineural catheters provided superior analgesia to opioids for all catheter locations and time periods (P < 0.05). Nausea/vomiting, sedation, and pruritus all occurred more commonly with opioid analgesia (P < 0.001). A reduction in opioid use was noted with perineural analgesia (P < 0.001). CPNB analgesia, regardless of catheter location, provided superior postoperative analgesia and fewer opioid-related side effects when compared with opioid analgesia.     

The use of infraorbital nerve block for postoperative pain control after transsphenoidal hypophysectomy

OBJECTIVES: The transsphenoidal approach for pituitary resection is often used for a suprasellar tumor. The use of infraorbital nerve block for pain control in the postoperative period is described in this case report. CASE REPORT: An 11-year old male was scheduled for a transsphenoidal approach to a pituitary tumor. After induction of general anesthesia and placement of an endotracheal tube, bilateral infraorbital nerve blocks (maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve) were performed using an intraoral approach. This block was repeated at the conclusion of surgery. The patient was very comfortable in the postoperative period without need for additional analgesia. CONCLUSIONS: Bilateral infraorbital nerve blocks may provide adequate pain control following transsphenoidal hypophysectomy. The avoidance of opioids may allow better neurological examination following major neurosurgical procedures.     

Bilateral continuous paravertebral catheters for reduction mammoplasty

Surgical procedures of the breast can result in significant postoperative pain. Paravertebral nerve blocks have been used successfully in the management of analgesia after breast surgery but are limited by a single injection. This report describes the use of bilateral paravertebral catheters to provide extended analgesia for reduction mammoplasty. A 48-year-old female underwent bilateral paravertebral catheter placement at thoracic level 3 and local anesthetic injections followed by general anesthesia for elective reduction mammoplasty. She reported no pain following the operation and required no supplemental opioids for pain management during her overnight recovery. This case demonstrates a method for extended bilateral thoracic analgesia. The technique may offer an alternative to traditional outpatient analgesics for reduction mammoplasty.     

Postoperative ileus: part I (Experimental results)

Postoperative gastro-intestinal motility disorders are of major importance for patient management following abdominal surgery both for clinical and economic reasons. In recent years, new pathophysiological links have been identified that contribute to postoperative ileus. The activation of sympathetic efferent neurons by visceral afferent nerve fibers, catecholamines, the stimulation of beta 3 -receptors in the gut wall, an inflammatory response of the gut wall with the consecutive release of nitric oxide, and opioids given for postoperative analgesia seem to be of major importance regarding the development of postoperative ileus. The pharmacological reduction of visceral afferent nerve fiber activity, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) instead of opioids for postoperative pain, peripheral opioid receptor antagonists together with opioids for postoperative analgesia, motilides and 5-HT4 receptor agonists as prokinetic drugs are strategies that are currently evaluated to treat postoperative ileus. Our review summarizes the present knowledge on the pathophysiology of postoperative ileus and new experimental treatments that might be of importance in the future.     

Analgesia for reconstruction of the cruciate ligaments of the knee

In the present case a reconstruction of the anterior and posterior cruciate ligament is planned. In general, major surgery of the knee as well as reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament is very painful. Continuous peripheral nerve blocks provide good analgesia and are superior to parenteral opioids concerning quality of analgesia and mobility and postoperative range of motion of the knee. Compared to the neuraxial catheters, cPNB have less side effects.     

Peripheral nerve block techniques for ambulatory surgery

Peripheral nerve blocks (PNBs) have an increasingly important role in ambulatory anesthesia and have many characteristics of the ideal outpatient anesthetic: surgical anesthesia, prolonged postoperative analgesia, and facilitated discharge. Critically evaluating the potential benefits and supporting evidence is essential to appropriate technique selection. When PNBs are used for upper extremity procedures, there is consistent opioid sparing and fewer treatment-related side effects when compared with general anesthesia. This has been demonstrated in the immediate perioperative period but has not been extensively investigated after discharge. Lower extremity PNBs are particularly useful for procedures resulting in greater tissue trauma when the benefits of dense analgesia appear to be magnified, as evidenced by less hospital readmission. The majority of current studies do not support the concept that a patient will have difficulty coping with pain when their block resolves at home. Initial investigations of outpatient continuous peripheral nerve blocks demonstrate analgesic potential beyond that obtained with single-injection blocks and offer promise for extending the duration of postoperative analgesia. The encouraging results of these studies will have to be balanced with the resources needed to safely manage catheters at home. Despite supportive data for ambulatory PNBs, most studies have been either case series or relatively small prospective trials, with a narrow focus on analgesia, opioids, and immediate side effects. Ultimately, having larger prospective data with a broader focus on outcome benefits would be more persuasive for anesthesiologists to perform procedures that are still viewed by many as technically challenging.     

国内大型综合医院和儿童医院小儿术后镇痛调查

目的了解当今国内小儿术后镇痛工作在儿童手术量较大的大型综合医院和儿童医院的应用情况,为小儿术后镇痛在国内推广应用提供参考。方法对全国预计小儿麻醉年手术量超过1000例的40家医院的麻醉科进行了问卷调查。31家医院完成调查,剔除年小儿手术量低于1000例的4家,纳入27家医院进行分析。调查的内容包括医院镇痛管理相关政策和制度,小儿术后镇痛开展情况,如开展镇痛的年龄段、常用术后镇痛方式和药物、静脉镇痛泵配方、小儿术后镇痛存在的问题等。结果纳入分析的医院中88．9％开展了小儿术后镇痛工作,开展1岁～3岁幼儿术后镇痛的占81．5％,1个月-12个月婴儿术后镇痛的占55．6％,新生儿术后镇痛仅有25．9％。超过80％的医院建立了小儿术后镇痛相关培训,并有个性化镇痛方案和疗效评估,但只有59．3％的医院安排有专门的小儿术后镇痛人员,22．2％设置了术后镇痛服务小组。所有开展小儿术后镇痛的医院均使用静脉患者自控镇痛（patient controlled analgesia,PCA）,只有25．9％医院开展硬膜外PCA方式镇痛。局麻药被广泛用于小儿术后镇痛,包括罗哌卡因、利多卡因和布比卡因,阿片类药物以舒芬太尼、芬太尼和曲马多为主,经常使用非甾体类抗炎药（non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs,NSAIDs）的医院仅占29．6％,只有11．1％的医院经常使用对乙酰氨基酚。结论小儿术后镇痛工作在我国儿童手术较多的大型综合性医院和儿童医院已经普遍开展,但婴儿和新生儿的术后镇痛工作有待加强。有必要普及术后切口局麻药浸润,更多开展外周神经阻滞;普及副作用少又经济实用的对乙酰氨基酚类药物的使用,增加NSAIDs的用量,加强阿片类药物治疗安全的监控。     

Acute pain management of patients with multiple fractured ribs

BACKGROUND: Multiple rib fracture causes severe pain that can seriously compromise respiratory mechanics and exacerbate underlying lung injury and pre-existing respiratory disease, predisposing to respiratory failure. The cornerstone of management is early institution of effective pain relief, the subject of this review. METHODS: A MEDLINE search was conducted for the years 1966 through and up to December 2002 for human studies written in English using the keywords "rib fractures", "analgesia", "blunt chest trauma", "thoracic injury", and "nerve block". The reference list of key articles was also searched for relevant articles. The various analgesic techniques used in patients with multiple fractured ribs were summarized. RESULTS: Analgesia could be provided using systemic opioids, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation or non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Alternatively, regional analgesic techniques such as intercostal nerve block, epidural analgesia, intrathecal opioids, interpleural analgesia and thoracic paravertebral block have been used effectively. Although invasive, in general, regional blocks tend to be more effective than systemic opioids, and produce less systemic side effects. CONCLUSION: Based on current evidence it is difficult to recommend a single method that can be safely and effectively used for analgesia in all circumstances in patients with multiple fractured ribs. By understanding the strengths and weaknesses of each analgesic technique, the clinician can weigh the risks and benefits and individualize pain management based on the clinical setting and the extent of trauma.     

Local infiltration analgesia

Pain after major abdominal, orthopedic, and thoracic surgeries can be significant causing unacceptable morbidity. Poorly controlled pain results in patient dissatisfaction and may also be associated with major morbidities, including perioperative myocardial ischemia, pulmonary complications, altered immune function, and postoperative cognitive dysfunction. Various techniques are currently used to manage this pain, and opioids are amongst the most frequently used. Recent literature supports the use of regional anesthesia in the form of various peripheral nerve blocks as a better alternative. This article discusses the role and evidence for wound infiltration analgesia in general surgery, orthopedic surgery, neurosurgery, and thoracic surgery.     

The use of peripheral nerve blocks at the elbow for carpal tunnel release

This case report illustrates that median, radial, and ulnar nerve blocks at the elbow provides anesthesia for ambulatory carpal tunnel release surgery. This report discusses 3 patients with medical conditions, including vascular access problems and morbid obesity, which made nerve blocks at the elbow advantageous compared with other anesthetic techniques. Peripheral nerve blocks at the elbow were done before surgery in a block room, so the patients spent less time in the operating room. Nerve blocks at the elbow are effective anesthesia for hand procedures with no patient requiring further local anesthetic injection and opioids for pain or expressing any discomfort during surgery. The blocks are easy to perform and set up quickly, and using long-acting local anesthetics, elbow blocks provide postoperative pain control for approximately 10 hours. The nerve blocks at the elbow facilitate the perioperative process by being done out of the operating room and providing prolonged pain control without the need for opioids, so nausea may be avoided.     

Feasibility of ultrasound-guided peripheral nerve block catheters for pain control on pediatric medical missions in developing countries

Continuous peripheral nerve blocks (CPNB) are effective for postoperative pain management in children in the hospital and at home. CPNB techniques are particularly advantageous when compared with systemic or oral opioids on medical missions to unfamiliar environments with minimal monitoring capacity. In addition, ultrasound-guidance facilitates the placement of perineural catheters in anesthetized children even in the absence of commercially packaged regional anesthesia equipment. We present a series of successful cases employing ultrasound-guided CPNB for postoperative analgesia on medical missions and discuss the impact of this technology on present and future patients in underserved countries.     

Postoperative analgesia in infants and children: new developments

Nowadays, postoperative pain control in infants and children is a big challenge. The only effective solution is a multidisciplinary work with accurate guidelines, starting from the preoperative period throughout the surgery and arriving at the postoperative period. The approach must be scientific, based on the recent studies and research. In recent years, there has been a renaissance in regional anesthesia in children, in part because of a greater concern about postoperative pain management in young patients, and in part because of technical advances in equipment to perform the blocks. In fact several techniques and routes can be used for pain treatment but all have side effects. We await data from the use of COX2 inhibitors, surely the future of NSAIDs, with valid anti-inflammatory action and fewer side effects in children. When possible/not controindicated, regional analgesia is often the best choice. Recently continuous peripheral infusion is successfully applied in infants and children, due to its safety, efficacy and well limited localisation of analgesia. All the variety of peripheral nerve blocks used in adults can be used in pediatrics. The indications to place a catheter for a continouos peripheral nerve blocks are the followings: major orthopedic procedures; the procedure is scheduled to last more than two hours; congenital malformation of foot or hand; fracture reduction; traction of femur fracture; when postoperative pain therapy is necessary for several days; painful physical therapy. The commonly performed continuous peripheral blocks in children are the brachial plexus block (parascalene or axillary), the femoral nerve block, the fascia iliaca block, the sciatic nerve block with the lateral or with the popliteal approach. In these last two years also our group performed several continuous peripheral nerve blocks particularly axillary, femoral and sciatic for major orthopedic surgery and trauma. In our institution, we use a bolus dose of 0.5-1 ml/kg (depending on the nerve to be blocked) of ropivacaine 0.2% or levobupivacaine 0.25% with clonidine 2 microg/kg and then in infants older than 6 months and children we use a continuous infusion of 0.1-0.3 ml/kg/h of 0.2% ropivacaine or 0.25% levobupivacaine with clonidine 3 microg/kg/24h for 48-72 hours. For older children doses and concentrations are usually the same used in adults.     

Post-operative epidural versus intravenous patient-controlled analgesia

Patient-controlled analgesia techniques have opened a new dimension to individualize patient's need for analgesia, in the treatment of acute post-operative pain. These techniques can be used intravenously, in the epidural space, and into peripheral nerve sheets. There is a common consensus that intravenous patient-controlled analgesia should not have a continuous infusion while epidural patient-controlled analgesia (PCEA) should be programmed with a continuous infusion. The drugs used for epidural analgesia are: opioids, local anaesthetics or the combination of both. The combinations seem to provide better pain relief and less side effects. The continuous epidural infusion of opioids has the advantages of fewer fluctuations in cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of drug, but it is necessary to administer a loading bolus, to overcome the fact that it takes several hours to provide adequate analgesia. The advantages of epidural versus intravenous patient-controlled analgesia are represented by better analgesia and a reduced opioids requirement, while the advantages when compared to epidural continuous infusion are: increased efficiency, self-adjustment by the patient, higher patient satisfaction, less sedation, and lower opioids dosage. The clinical advantages of PCEA may outweigh the greater cost and invasiveness of this technique.     

Patient satisfaction and effectiveness of lumbar plexus and sciatic nerve block for total knee arthroplasty

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of combined lumbar plexus block techniques for total knee arthroplasty. Long-acting local anesthetics were used to ensure adequate intraoperative and postoperative anesthesia and analgesia. All patients undergoing total knee arthroplasty at our institution were offered lumbar plexus block after obtaining informed consent. Patients for study were a continuous group of 87 patients over a 1-year period. A subset of 40 patients was studied for postoperative analgesia effect. All patients were contacted by phone for a satisfaction survey. There were 87 patients who received initial lumbar plexus and sciatic nerve blocks, 78% (68 of 87) of whom had adequate initial blocks. Sixteen patients (22%) required conversion to general anesthesia intraoperatively because of inadequate anesthesia. A subset of patients studied for postoperative analgesia revealed an average time of 13 hours before the first request for supplemental narcotics. There were no complications related to the lumbar plexus block in our study group of patients. There was a 92% overall satisfaction rate with the anesthesia provided by the lumbar plexus block. Lumbar plexus block can be used successfully for total knee arthroplasty. Lumbar plexus block appears to have advantages for early postoperative analgesia, leading to increased patient comfort and satisfaction.