A critical comparison of the history of sudden-death infants and infants hospitalised for near-miss for SIDS

To determine whether significant historical differences distinguish the near-miss for Sudden Infant Death from the infants who died of SIDS, we analysed the histories and clinical data from two groups of infants seen in our University Hospital and from collaborative research group. The data were obtained with the use of a standardised questionnaire and consultation of all available medical data.Sixty-five infants were identifed as near-miss for SIDS after they had suffered a severe cardiorespiratory incident during sleep for which no cause could be found despite a complet medical examination. After an autopsy had failed to reveal a cause for the unexpected death 95 cases of SIDS were retained in the study. A series of 353 variables were collected from the parents, the gynaecologists, neonatologists and attending physicians.After statistical analysis, only 15 of the 353 items studied significantly differentiated between the two groups. A stepwise discriminant analysis performed on these items led to the identification of six independent variables: the time of the incident; the circumstances leading to the observation of the child; the child's sleep position; previous minor intestinal problems; the size of the family and the mother's coffee consumption. Most variables indicate that the near-miss infants were discovered and rescued earlier than the infants who died. No other historical information appeared significantly to differentiate between the two groups of infants. These data need confirmation from a prospective epidemiological survey.Abbreviation SIDS Sudden Infant Death Syndrome     

Sleep and aminophylline treatment of apnea in preterm infants

The influence of short-term aminophylline treatment on sleep behaviour was studied in six preterms infants with recurrent apnea. The incidence of apnea, respiratory pauses, and bradycardias which were closely related to the phases of active sleep, decreased during aminophylline treatment. However, the amount of active sleep remained unaffected. The mode of action of aminophylline is discussed in view of the previously proposed neurophysiological concept of apnea of prematurity.Supported by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft SFB 33     

探讨脉搏传导时间技术诊断疑似儿童阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征的应用价值

目的 介绍脉搏传导时间（PTT）技术的原理和使用方法，提高对PTT技术的认识，探讨其在诊断儿童阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征（OSAHS）中的应用。方法 对高度怀疑OSAHS的儿童进行整夜的PTT监测，连接鼻导管、热敏电阻检测口和鼻气流的变化来判断呼吸暂停及低通气事件，并根据PTT的变化趋势结合口、鼻气流的变化来区分阻塞性和中枢性呼吸事件，心电极、血氧探头共同检测PTT和血氧，体位监测器检测睡眠时体位的变化，记录数据并用SPSS 11.0软件分析。结果 125例疑似OSAHS儿童,其中男85例，女40例，年龄2~12岁，平均年龄5.8岁，全部顺利通过PTT监测，无一例半途中止，患儿接受程度高。PTT监测结果显示，最长阻塞性呼吸暂停时间(MOAT)为（32.02±20.80）s，其中男 （30.47±21.97）s，女（34.26±18.22）s；最长中枢性呼吸暂停时间(MCAT)为（14.45±6.55）s，其中男（14.34±7.59）s，女（14.78±4.54）s；最长低通气时间 (MHT) 为（57.04±25.22）s，其中男 （53.80±21.95）s，女（62.20±30.68）s；阻塞性呼吸暂停指数(OAI)为6.00±6.44，其中男5.44±7.37，女7.33±3.93；中枢性呼吸暂停指数(CAI)为0.85±1.00，其中男0.79±1.07，女0.98±0.87；低通气指数（HI）为5.68±6.04，其中男5.72±5.00，女5.60±7.84；最低血氧(minimum SaO2)为（83.26±12.88）%，其中男（81.97±12.93）%，女（85.58±15.87）%；微觉醒指数(arousal index,Arousals)为26.39±12.46，其中男28.09±13.58，女22.75±9.29。125例疑似OSAHS儿童中，2例（1.6％，2/125）诊断为正常，13例（10.4％，13/125）诊断为上气道阻力综合征，41例（32.8％，41/125）诊断为轻度OSAHS，47例（37.6％，47/125）诊断为中度OSAHS，22例（17.6％，22/125）诊断为重度OSAHS。对不同性别儿童PTT监测参数进行统计学分析，结果显示不同性别儿童间的MOAT、MCAT、MHT、OAI、CAI、HI和minimum SaO2差异无统计学意义。结论 PTT可用于儿童OSAHS的确诊，可鉴别中枢性和阻塞性睡眠呼吸事件，其操作简单、导联少，儿童容易接受，有良好的应用前景。     

Sleep fragmentation and evidence for sleep debt in alcohol-exposed infants

BACKGROUND:: Infants exposed prenatally to alcohol are at increased risk for poor neurodevelopmental outcome including Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. AIM:: To examine the relationship between prenatal alcohol exposure, sleep, arousal and sleep-related spontaneous motor movements in early infancy. STUDY DESIGN:: Low-income women (N=13) were interviewed regarding pre- and pregnancy rates of alcohol, cigarette smoking and other substance use in the perinatal period. Infants were examined in a laboratory nap study using EEG, videography and actigraphy at 6-8 weeks of age. Estimates of maternal pre- and pregnancy alcohol use were used to divide infants into high vs. low maternal alcohol use groups. SUBJECTS:: Mother-infant dyads recruited from a family practice clinic. OUTCOME MEASURES:: Sleep-related spontaneous movements, behavioral state, and maternal assessments of infant alertness and irritability. RESULTS:: Pre-pregnancy rates of alcohol consumption including binge drinking correlated with maternal report of poor infant alertness, and increased irritability. High maternal exposure groups showed increased sleep fragmentation, e.g. frequency and duration of wakefulness following sleep onset and decreased active sleep. Bout analysis of the temporal structure of sleep-related spontaneous movements showed significantly reduced bout duration associated with high maternal alcohol use. CONCLUSION:: These results present evidence that prenatal alcohol exposure disrupts postnatal sleep organization and suppresses spontaneous movements during sleep, and increased sleep fragmentation promotes sleep deprivation. Results are consistent with the SIDS model of chronic sleep debt and suggest that attenuated sleep-related movements should be examined as an important modulator of cardiorespiratory functions during sleep in high-risk groups.     

枸橼酸咖啡因治疗对呼吸暂停早产儿早期肺功能的影响

目的探讨枸橼酸咖啡因治疗早产儿呼吸暂停(AOP)对患儿早期肺功能的影响。方法 40例AOP患儿随机分为氨茶碱治疗组(20例)和咖啡因治疗组(20例)。2组患儿均在生后出现呼吸暂停时在经鼻持续气道正压通气(NCPAP)辅助通气的基础上给予氨茶碱或枸橼酸咖啡因治疗,停药后行肺功能检测,比较两组之间肺功能的变化。结果治疗后咖啡因治疗组潮气量、每分通气量、达峰时间比、达峰容积比、潮气呼吸呼气峰流速及75%、50%、25%潮气量时呼吸流速均高于氨茶碱治疗组(P0.05);咖啡因治疗组用氧时间、NCPAP使用时间均低于氨茶碱治疗组(P0.01)。与氨茶碱治疗组比较,咖啡因治疗组用药7d后呼吸暂停发生频率明显减少(P0.01)。结论枸橼酸咖啡因治疗AOP可以改善患儿早期肺功能,减少呼吸暂停的发生。     

Validation of actigraphy for determining sleep and wake in preterm infants

Background: Actigraphy has been widely used in adults and children for the determination of sleep and wake. However, there have been limited studies in infants and to date there have been no studies to validate the reliability of actigraphy in preterm infants.
Aim: To evaluate the usefulness of actigraphy in preterm infants in a neonatal unit setting for determining sleep–wake by comparing results with those recorded from behavioural observations.
Methods: Thirty-eight studies were carried out in 10 preterm infants (8M/2F) born at 29–34 weeks gestational age. Sleep–wake patterns were assessed over 24 h with behavioural observations and compared to actigraphy (Actiwatch AW64, Mini Mitter Company Inc., Sunriver, OR, USA). The studies were grouped into gestational ages 30–33 weeks (n = 8), 34–36 weeks (n = 20) and 37–40 weeks (n = 10).
Results: Overall, on the low-activity threshold we found agreement rates of 84.5–88.9% between actigraphy and behavioural scoring with the predictive value for determining sleep (PVS) being between 91.3% and 95.6% and sensitivity between 88.2% and 96.8%. However, the actiwatch was not reliable for determining wakefulness with low values for predictive value of wake (PVW,31.1–53.7%) and specificity (31.5–33.6%).
Conclusion: Actigraphy can be used as a reliable indicator of sleep patterns in preterm infants in the neonatal unit setting.     

Auditory processing during sleep in preterm infants: An event related potential study

Auditory processing during sleep was investigated in premature infants by auditory event related potentials (AERPs). Twenty-six premature infants (mean GA 30 week- range 25-35) admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit were studied, prior to discharge, in active and quiet sleep at a mean post-conceptional age of 35 weeks. Infant state was determined by behavioral observation according to standard criteria. An auditory odd-ball paradigm was used with frequently occurring ‘standard’ tones at 1000 Hz and infrequent ‘deviant’ tones at 2000 Hz. Waveforms were recorded at Fz, Cz, Pz, T3 and T4 scalp locations. Measurements were performed in 18 patients because 8 preterm infants were excluded since they had less than the required artifact-free deviant trials in each sleep state. The responses to standard tones were equally recorded in both active and quiet sleep, but auditory responses to deviant tones consisting of an increased frontal negativity in the time period from 200 to 300 ms after the stimulus were recorded only in active sleep. A significant effect of electrode placement, for frontal location by sleep condition and sleep condition by 50 ms time windows was shown by repeated measures analyses of variance. The significance of these findings on evoked potential methodology in preterm infants admitted to neonatal intensive care unit is discussed.     

Effect of position on oxygen saturation and requirement in convalescent preterm infants

Aims: To document the effect of position on oxygen saturation and changes in oxygen requirement in convalescent preterm infants. Methods: Twelve infants born ≥24 and ≤32 weeks gestation, extubated and without congenital anomaly were studied using nap polysomnography in prone and supine, twice weekly until discharge. Mean oxygen saturation (SpO₂), minimum SpO₂, mean minimum SpO₂ and time with SpO₂ < 90% were measured in active sleep. Results: Eight male and four female infants [median gestation 28 (24–31) weeks and median birthweight 1059 (715–1840) g] had 39 studies. For 21 of 39 studies, the infant was on respiratory support. Four infants had chronic lung disease (CLD). SpO₂ varied with postmenstrual age (PMA) (p = 0.003) but not with position (p = 0.36), and PMA did not influence the effect of position on SpO₂ (p = 0.19). SpO₂ was lower for those with CLD (p < 0.0001) and those on respiratory support (p < 0.001), but there was no effect of position (p = 0.97 and p = 0.67, respectively). From 36 weeks PMA, a change to supine did not increase oxygen requirement. Conclusion: In preterm infants, PMA and residual respiratory disease have greater effects on oxygenation than position. A supine sleep position is not disadvantageous for preterm infants at discharge.     

Effects of naloxone on apnoea duration during sleep in infants at risk for SIDS

The effects of intravenous injections of the opiate antagonist naloxone (0.005–0.4 mg/kg body weight) on respiratory pattern, apnoea duration and frequency were investigated in six infants with severe sleep apnoea syndrome. Since several authors found elevated plasma- and CSF-levels of endogenous opioids (endorphines) in infants with sleep apnoea syndrome, we wanted to determine whether the impairment of the control mechanisms of respiration during sleep is due to an effect of endogenous opioids.Independent of the dose, naloxone did not exert any effect on respiratory pattern and occurrence of periodic apnoea. We were unable to prove that endorphines play a major role in pathogenesis of sleep apnoea syndrome in infancy and possibly in sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).We speculate that elevated levels of endorphines reported by some investigators rather seem to be a consequence of hypoxic stress than a cause for sleep apnoeas.Abbreviations SIDS sudden infant death syndrome - CSF cerebral spinal fluid Supported by the Austrian Research Fund     

经鼻同步间歇正压通气治疗早产儿呼吸暂停的临床研究

目的：比较经鼻同步间歇正压通气（NSIPPV）与经鼻持续气道正压通气（NCPAP）治疗早产儿呼吸暂停的疗效。方法：将2010年8月至2011年1月住院的80例呼吸暂停早产儿随机分为NSIPPV组与NCPAP组,每组40例,比较治疗前、治疗后2 h血气分析结果、上机时间、疗效和并发症。结果：治疗前两组血气分析结果的差异无统计学意义（P＞0.05）,治疗后2 h NSIPPV组的pH值、PaO2、PaCO2均明显优于NCPAP组（P＜0.05）;NSIPPV组上机时间（50±9 h）明显短于NCPAP组（91±11 h）,差异有统计学意义（P＜0.01）;两组治疗的总有效率（95% vs 85%）差异无统计学意义（P＞0.05）,但NSIPPV组3 d 内撤机的比例（23/40）明显高于NCPAP组（14/40）（P＜0.05）;两组并发症发生比率（22% vs 25%）差异无统计学意义（P＞0.05）。结论：NSIPPV治疗早产儿呼吸暂停比NCPAP更有优势。     

咖啡因治疗早产儿呼吸暂停相关基因多态性的研究进展北大核心CSCD

早产儿呼吸暂停(apnea of prematurity,AOP)是早产儿的常见疾病之一,发病原因主要是呼吸控制中枢发育的不成熟。AOP如果得不到及时有效的处理会引发呼吸衰竭,引起脑缺氧损伤,严重者会导致死亡。咖啡因是治疗早产儿AOP的首选药物,但在早产儿中的治疗效果存在差异。随着对AOP研究的深入,越来越多的遗传学因素已被证实在AOP的发病和治疗中起重要作用,尤其是基因单核苷酸多态性对咖啡因疗效的影响已成为近年来研究的热点。该文就影响咖啡因疗效的相关基因多态性进行综述,以期为咖啡因的个体化治疗提供参考。     

Infant formulas for preterm infants: In-hospital and post-discharge

The availability and composition of preterm and post‐discharge formulas (PDFs) have undergone considerable changes over the last decade. Human milk, supplemented with multi‐component fortifier, is the preferred feed for very preterm infants as it has beneficial effects for both short‐ and long‐term outcomes compared with formula. If supply of mother's milk or donor milk is inadequate, a breast milk substitute specifically designed for premature infants is the next option. Preterm formula is intended to provide nutrient intakes to match intrauterine growth and nutrient accretion rates and is enriched with energy, macronutrients, minerals, vitamins, and trace elements compared with term infant formulas. Post‐natal longitudinal growth failure has been reported almost universally in extremely preterm infants. Since 2009, a nutritionally enriched PDF specifically designed for preterm infants post hospital discharge with faltering growth has been available in Australia and New Zealand. This formula is an intermediary between preterm and term formulas and contains more energy (73 kcal/100 mL), protein (1.9 g/100 mL), minerals, vitamins, and trace elements than term formulas. Although the use of a PDF is based on sound nutritional knowledge, the 2012 Cochrane Systematic Review of 10 trials comparing feeding preterm infants with PDF and term formula did not demonstrate any short‐ or long‐term benefits. Health professionals need to make individual decisions on whether and how to use PDF.     

Cranial ultrasound in preterm infants: long term follow up.

One hundred and twenty nine high risk preterm infants (gestational ages 26-36 weeks, mean 31.2 weeks; birth weights 800-3880 g, mean 1490 g) were studied by cranial ultrasound during the neonatal period, over a period of one week to three months, and at the age of 1 year. Neonatal ultrasound scanning was performed with an ATL Mk III real time echoscope, and follow up ultrasound scans at the age of 1 were performed with an Octoson static compound scanner. The neonatal scans of 66 infants were abnormal. Cerebroventricular haemorrhages were detected in 53 infants and other lesions in 19, six of whom also had haemorrhages. Posthaemorrhagic changes developed in 30 infants. The follow up scans at 1 year were abnormal in 27 children. One large parenchymal cyst was detected. All 27 scans showed ventricular dilatations; 19 were asymmetrical. About 95% of the children with normal neonatal scans and 60% with abnormal neonatal scans had normal scans at 1 year. The size and shape of the ventricular system had changed in 20% of all infants. As no major changes were seen in the ultrasound images of those studied beyond the age of 2 months cranial ultrasound follow up in high risk preterm infants should therefore be continued until the age of 2-3 months; follow up beyond that age would only rarely be necessary.     

Sequelae of caffeine treatment in preterm infants with apnea.

Growth, neurologic, and ophthalmologic assessments were done in 21 low-birth-weight infants given caffeine for neonatal apnea and in 21 matched control infants. Caffeine significantly decreased the need for and the duration of mechanical ventilation. No difference in growth and development was noted between the control and caffeine-treated infants. A high incidence of cicatricial retrolental fibroplasia was observed in both control (10/21) and caffeine-treated infants (7/18).     

Analgosedation with low-dose morphine for preterm infants with CPAP: risks and benefits

BACKGROUND: CPAP is widely used in preterm infants on NICUs but it poses a stressful stimulus to the patient, sometimes requiring the use of analgosedative drugs. AIM: The aim of this study is to evaluate the risks and benefits associated with the use of low-dose morphine in preterm infants with CPAP, especially apnea. METHODS: Sixty-four CPAP-treated preterm infants, who received a low single dose of morphine (recommended 0.01 mg/kg), were included in this prospective study. Observation-time was 4 h prior to injection, directly before injecting, until 15 min and 15-30 min, 30 min-1 h, 1-2 h, 2-3 h, 3-4 h, 4-5 h and 5-6 h after injection. For all observation periods incidence of apnea, heart rate, respiratory rate and a score for analgesia and for sedation were recorded. RESULTS: Sixty-four preterm infants (29.6+/-3.3 weeks gestational age (GA), birth weight 1401+/-735 g) received 0.025+/-0.012 mg/kg morphine i.v. on the day 10-13 of life. The decrease in heart and respiratory rate, scores for analgesia and sedation were significant. The overall incidence of apnea did not increase compared to the 4 h pre-morphine period. Six patients (9.3%) experienced considerable delayed apnea. This group was significantly younger in GA (p<0.001) and lighter in birth weight (p=0.002). CONCLUSION: Morphine in dosage less than half of recommended dosage has a high analgetic and sedative potential. The danger of delayed severe apnea has to be taken into consideration in the clinical situation, especially in patients<28 weeks.     

国产和进口枸橼酸咖啡因治疗早产儿呼吸暂停疗效的比较：前瞻性随机双盲对照研究

目的 比较国产和进口枸橼酸咖啡因治疗早产儿呼吸暂停的临床疗效。方法 选取2018年4月至2019年12月胎龄28~33⁺⁶周的98例早产儿为研究对象,根据应用枸橼酸咖啡因种类不同随机分为国产组（n=48）和进口组（n=50）,两组患儿均在生后6 h内使用枸橼酸咖啡因。比较两组患儿的治疗疗效、并发症、不良反应及临床结局。结果 两组患儿生后7 d内呼吸暂停发生率、每天呼吸暂停发作次数、呼吸暂停消失时间、气管插管-注入肺表面活性物质-拔管技术失败率、无创辅助通气时间、氧疗时间、用药时间、住院天数、血气分析指标、肝肾功能指标比较,差异无统计学意义（P > 0.05）。两组患儿并发症及病死率比较,差异均无统计学意义（P > 0.05）。两组患儿不良反应发生率比较,差异均无统计学意义（P > 0.05）。结论 国产枸橼酸咖啡因治疗早产儿呼吸暂停安全有效,与进口枸橼酸咖啡因比较无显著差异。     

Bone mineral content in term and preterm appropriate-for-gestational-age infants.

Photon absorptiometry adapted for use in small infants was utilized to measure bone mineral content in 42 term and 30 perterm appropriate-for-gestational-age infants. BMC at birth correlated significantly with gestational age and birth weight. Sequential measurements of BMC in premature infants during the first three months showed that the postnatal increase in BMC was significantly less than the BMC expected in utero. We speculate that decreased intake of calcium and phosphate effects postnatal bone mineralization in premature infants.