Nationwide survey of radon levels in Korea

A nationwide radon survey was conducted to provide data on the annual average indoor radon concentration in Korean homes. This survey also provided data on the variation of radon concentration with season, house type, and building age. The arithmetic mean (AM) of annual radon concentration in Korean homes was 53.4 +/- 57.5 Bq m(-3). The indoor radon concentration showed a lognormal distribution with a geometric mean (GM) and its standard deviation (GSD) of 43.3 +/- 1.8 Bq m(-3). The radon concentrations in the traditional Korean-style houses were about two times higher than those in apartments and row houses. The average annual outdoor radon concentration was 23.3 Bq m(-3). The average annual effective dose to the general public from radon was 1.63 mSv y(-1).     

Childhood leukemia incidence and exposure to indoor radon, terrestrial and cosmic gamma radiation

This study was undertaken to evaluate the ecological association between terrestrial and cosmic gamma radiation, indoor radon, and acute leukemia incidence among children under 15 y of age. From 1990 to 2001, 5,330 cases of acute leukemia were registered by the French National Registry of Childhood Leukemia and Lymphoma. Exposure to terrestrial gamma radiation was based on measurements, using thermoluminescent dosimeters, at about 1,000 sites covering all the "Départements." In addition, 8,737 indoor terrestrial gamma dose rate measurements covering 62% of the "Départements" and 13,240 indoor radon concentration measurements covering all the "Départements" were made during a national campaign. Cosmic ray doses were estimated in each of the 36,363 "Communes" of France. There was no evidence of an ecological association between terrestrial gamma dose (range: 0.22-0.90 mSv y) or total gamma dose (range: 0.49-1.28 mSv y) and childhood acute leukemia incidence, for acute myeloid leukemia (AML) or for acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), in univariate or multivariate regression analyses including indoor radon. A significant positive association between indoor radon (range: 22-262 Bq m) and AML incidence among children was observed and remained significant in multivariate regression analyses including either terrestrial gamma dose [SIR per 100 Bq m = 1.29 (1.09-1.53)] or total gamma dose [SIR per 100 Bq m = 1.29 (1.09-1.53)]. The study showed no ecological association between terrestrial gamma radiation and childhood leukemia for the range of variation in gamma dose rates observed in France. The moderate ecological association between childhood AML incidence and indoor radon does not appear to be confounded by terrestrial gamma dose.     

黄山市环境辐射水平及居民受照剂量调查分析

目的研究黄山市环境辐射水平及居民受照剂量,为辐射防护和经济建设提供背景资料。方法采用FD-71型闪烁辐射仪,测量室内外、道路γ辐射剂量率;采用低本底闪烁测氡仪,测量氡浓度;采用γ能谱分析方法,测量建材中放射性核素226Ra、232Th、40K的含量。结果室内、室外、道路γ辐射剂量率均值分别为12.2×10-8Gy.h-1、8.5×10-8Gy.h-1、8.6×10-8Gy.h-1。地球γ辐射水平室内比室外高,平均比值为1.44,道路与室外的γ辐射水平差异无统计学意义。室内和室外宇宙射线辐射剂量率分别为2.7×10-8Gy.h-1和3.0×10-8Gy.h-1。室内、室外氡浓度均值分别为27.3 Bq.m-3和13.2 Bq.m-3。建筑材料除碳化砖及个别类型中的样品外,其他建材内、外照射指数均低于国家标准。结论黄山市环境辐射外照射所致居民人均年有效剂量当量为0.92mSv,其辐射水平属正常本底水平;室内、外氡浓度致居民受到的人均年有效剂量当量为1.88 mSv。在世界值范围内,传统建材放射性核素含量与世界建材典型值比较接近,其他建材有部分则高于世界建材典型值,应引起相关部门的注意。     

Radon 222Rn in residential buildings of Swieradów Zdrój and Czerniawa Zdrój

Swieradrów Zdrój and Czerniawa Zdrój are located in Region Izera Block. A total of 789 radon passive dosimeters were distributed in 183 dwellings in these town Swieradów Zdrój and Czerniawa Zdrój to measure the indoor radon concentration in 1999. Three-five measurements were performed in each dwelling, one in the basement, and the others in the main bedroom, in the kitchen, in the bathroom, since these rooms are the most frequently occupied. In addition, the occupants of each dwelling were requested to answer a questionnaire in which a number of questions about the building, ventilation habits and other related aspects were formulated. A charcoal detectors (Pico-Rad system) were used in experiment. It is a passive short-term screening method of radon gas concentration measurements. The indoor radon level was found to range from 14.8 Bq/m3 to 5,723.9 Bq/m3. The arithmetic mean overall indoor concentration was 420.4 Bq/m3 and the geometric mean was 159.7 Bq/m3. The average concentration of indoor radon, which reflects the real risk for inhabitants, is 193.5 Bq/m3. The results hand a log-normal distribution. In Poland, an action level of 400 Bq/m3 was recommended for existing buildings and 200 Bq/m3 for newly built (after 1.01.1998) buildings. In about 23% rooms the level of Rn-222 were above the top limit of 400 Bq/m3. The highest average concentrations were present in a basement (mean 919.9 Bq/m3). A decrease of average activity were observed at the upper levels: at the ground floor (225.2 Bq/m3), at the first floor and at the higher floors (137.6 Bq/m3). The above results indicate that radon emission from the ground provides the main contribution to the radon concentration measured in dwellings indoors in Swieradów Zdrój and Czerniawa Zdrój. The effective dose to the population of the Swieradów Zdrój and Czerniawa Zdrój from indoor radon and its progeny can be derived from this data if we use an equilibrium factor of 0.4 between radon and its progeny and assuming an indoor occupation index of 0.8. Taking into account that a conversion coefficient of 1.1 mSv per mJ h m-3 is recommended in ICRP 65 for members of public, the measured average annual dose is then about 3.3 mSv per year.     

Radon concentration in two largest cities in semitropical Taiwan.

Grab sampling either using the active charcoal method in combination with an ionization chamber or using a working level monitor was performed for the measurement of radon concentration in Taiwan's two largest cities Taipei and Kaohsiung. Long-term monitoring of radon concentration in dwellings and business buildings was also carried out with cellulose nitrate films as the alpha detectors. The average indoor radon concentration in these two cities is 17 +/- 6 Bq m-3. The outdoor radon concentration is about one-half of that on average. As assessed according to the model of UNSCEAR 1988, the induced effective dose equivalent is 0.67 mSv y-1. Radon concentration in coal mines showed an average of 88.5 +/- 9.5 Bq m-3.     

居室环境放射性现状评价

目的 为了掌握居室环境放射性水平,并对当前室内环境的放射性水平做出评价。方法 使用自制的"室内环境放射性评价测量盒"(专利号:ZL200620082698.7)对室内环境中²²²Rn活度浓度、²²⁰Rn活度浓度、²²⁰Rn子体的平衡当量浓度(EEC_Tn)以及γ外照射剂量率进行测量。结果 测量济南市室内²²²Rn共411间次,活度浓度范围为18~203Bq·m^-3,呈对数正态分布,几何均值为45Bq·m^-3;测量室内²²⁰Rn共203间次,其活度浓度范围为1~167Bq·m^-3,几何均值为16Bq·m^-3;测量室内²²⁰Rn子体的平衡当量浓度共204间次,其活度浓度范围为0.015~10.230Bq·m^-3,几何均值为1.082Bq·m^-3;测量室内γ外照射剂量率共412间次,其γ外照射剂量率范围为0.041~0.167μSv·h^-1,呈正态分布,算术均值为0.106μSv·h^-1。结论 居民由²²²Rn及其子体造成的内照射剂量为1.189mSv/a;由²²⁰Rn及其子体造成的内照射剂量为0.255mSv/a;由γ外照射外照射剂量为0.743mSv/a;年均总剂量为2.187mSv,最大年均剂量已超过5mSv。     

崇明县空气中氡浓度水平调查与评价

目的 了解崇明县室内外氡浓度水平并估算其所致公众的受照剂量。方法 根据2010年全国人口普查崇明县乡镇人口比例、房屋建筑类型、建筑年代和主体建筑材料等对测量样本进行分类选择。使用美国Durridge公司制造RAD7型电子氡气检测仪对室内外氡进行测量,数据采用SPSS 17.0软件进行统计分析。结果 本次调查的室内²²²Rn浓度范围为5.75~195.29 Bq/m³,平均浓度为(25.76±2.07) Bq/m³。约有73.89%的房屋内氡浓度低于40 Bq/m³。室外²²²Rn浓度的范围为5.70~19.32 Bq/m³,平均浓度为(9.92±1.43) Bq/m³。结论 本次调查的崇明县室内氡浓度均未超过国家推荐的控制限值。崇明县居民吸入氡所致人年均有效剂量为0.74 mSv。     

Radon concentrations in elementary schools in Kuwait

Measurements of indoor radon concentrations were performed in 25 classrooms in the capital city of Kuwait from September 2003 to March 2004 using track etch detectors. The investigation was focused on area, ventilation, windows, air conditioners, fans, and floor number. All the schools have nearly the same design. Mean indoor radon concentration was higher for case subjects (classrooms) than for control subjects (locations in inert gas, p < 0.001). The mean alpha dose equivalent rate for case subjects, 0.97 +/- 0.25 mSv y, was higher than the radiation dose equivalent rate value of control subjects, 0.43 +/- 0.11 mSv y. The average radon concentrations were found to be 16 +/- 4 Bq m for the first floor and 19 +/- 4.8 Bq m for the second floor after subtraction of the control. These values lead to average effective dose equivalent rates of 0.40 +/- 0.10 and 0.48 +/- 0.12 mSv y, respectively. The equilibrium factor between radon and its progeny was found to be 0.6 +/- 0.2.     

Natural radioactivity and radiation exposure at the Minjingu phosphate mine in Tanzania.

In this paper the results of studies on activity and ambient radiation background around the Minjingu phosphate mine in Tanzania are presented. The outdoor dose rate in air and the activity levels of samples from and outside the mine were determined by thermoluminiscent dosimeters and a gamma spectrometer system with a Hyper Pure germanium detector system respectively. The determination of activity was made for the 226Ra, 228Ra, 228Th and 40K radionuclides. High concentrations of radium-226 were observed in phosphate rock (5760+/-107 Bq kg(-1)), waste rock (4250+/-98 Bq kg(-1)), wild leaf vegetation (650+/-11 Bq kg(-1)), edible leaf vegetation (393+/-9 Bq kg(-1)), surface water (4.7+/-0.4 mBq l(-1)) and chicken feed (4+/-0.1 Bq kg(-1)) relative to selected control sites. These findings suggest a radiation health risk particularly when the samples are ingested, because the internal exposure may give rise to an effective dose exceeding 20 mSv which is the annual limit of intake of natural radionuclides recommended by the ICRP. On the other hand, the radiation dose from ambient air over five years at the phosphate mine ranges from 1375 to 1475 nGy h(-1) with an average of 1415 nGy h(-1). The average is about 28 times that of the global average background radiation from terrestrial sources, and about 12 times the allowed average dose limit for public exposure over five consecutive years. Future investigations on the occupancy factor, external dose rate and radon and radon progeny exposure in drinking water, buildings and activity content in the locally grown foodstuffs are proposed, for the realistic quantification of the overall exposure of workers and public at Minjingu, and remedial measures for future radiation safety.     

Anomalously high radon concentrations in dwellings located on permeable glacial sediments.

Indoor radon concentrations were measured in different seasons in 104 dwellings located on a highly permeable ice-marginal moraine in Kinsarvik, Western Norway. The measurements revealed the highest indoor radon levels ever detected in Norway and extreme variations in seasonal and short-term indoor radon levels. Annual average indoor radon concentrations up to 56 000 Bq m(-3) and a mean value of 4340 Bq m(-3) for the whole residential area are reported. By using the ICRP conversion factors to effective dose, these indoor radon values correspond to a total annual effective dose of 930 mSv and 72 mSv, respectively. By using the conversion as recommended by UNSCEAR, the effective doses would be about 50% higher. The indoor radon concentrations are found to be strongly influenced by thermally induced flows of radon-bearing soil air directed towards the upper part of the ice-marginal deposit in winter and towards the area of lowest elevation in summer. The pattern of seasonal variations observed suggests that in areas where thermal convection may occur, annual average indoor radon levels should be derived from measurements performed both in summer and in winter.     

湛江市部分住房室内外空气中氡浓度测定

采用活性炭吸附闪烁法测定了湛江市部分住房室内、外空气中的平衡当量氡浓度。结果表明 ,住房室内、外空气中平衡当量氡浓度平均值分别为 2 5 2 7Bq/m3 和 14 6 8Bq/m3 ,室内空气中平衡当量氡浓度显著高于室外 (P <0 0 1) ;不同装饰材料的住房室内空气中平衡当量氡浓度各有差异 ,其中以花岗岩为装饰材料的住房室内平衡当量氡浓度 (31 18Bq/m3 )为最高 ,水泥地板住房 (14 71Bq/m3 )最低     

Seasonal variation in indoor radon concentrations in dwellings in six districts of the Punjab province, Pakistan

An indoor radon measurement survey has been carried out in six districts of the Punjab province. These included Gujranwala, Gujrat, Hafizabad, Sialkot, Narowal and Mandibahauddin districts. In each district, 40 representative houses were chosen and indoor radon levels were measured in these dwellings in autumn, winter, spring and summer seasons using CR-39 based NRPB radon dosimeters. After exposure to radon, the CR-39 detectors were etched in 25% NaOH at 80 degrees C and track densities were related to radon concentration levels. From the observed data, average radon concentration levels and a seasonal correction factor were calculated. The average 222Rn concentration level was found to vary from 40 +/- 15 to 160 +/- 32 Bq m(-3) and 38 +/- 17 to 141 +/- 26 Bq m(-3) in the bedrooms and living rooms of the houses surveyed, respectively. The annual mean effective dose received by the occupants has been calculated using ICRP (1993 Ann. ICRP 23) and UNSCEAR (2000 Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation (New York: United Nations)); it varied from 1.2 to 1.7 mSv and from 1.8 to 2.4 mSv, respectively.     

Radon daughter levels in some public and private buildings in India.

Radon daughter concentrations have been measured in some public and private buildings of Aligarh city. Approximately 320 CR-39 detectors were mounted in 30 sample sites. It was found that the Rn daughter concentrations vary from 3.5 mWL to 8.1 mWL with a geometric mean of 5.6 +/- 1.3 mWL. The average annual effective dose equivalent due to Rn daughters is found to be 1.46 mSv using an equilibrium factor of 0.45 and an occupancy factor of 0.8. About 33% of buildings were estimated to have a Rn concentration below 40 Bq m-3 and 79% below 60 Bq m-3. The measured levels do not require any intervention as recommended by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.     

Do the UK workplace Radon Action Levels reflect the radiation dose received by the occupants?

In the UK, Action Levels for radon have been established at 400 Bq m(-3) for the workplace and 200 Bq m(-3) for the home. We have estimated the dose received by occupants of rooms with radon levels near or above the Action Level, using hourly radon readings, and a questionnaire to record occupancy. In the workplace, results for 73 staff suggest that doses are lower than expected, partly due to part-time working and partly due to the mobility of staff. The 75% quantile for the series, corrected to a 37 hour week, is 5.2 mSv at 400 Bq m(-3). Compared to the current annual limit for radiation workers, the Action Level could be increased, but the current Action Level is compatible with the recent EEC Directive requiring a lower dose limit. However, when raised radon levels in the workplace were reduced by remediation in the series we studied, the dose reduction to staff was consistently around half of the radon level reduction. Although it would be appropriate to study more locations, this suggests an Action Level for remediated workplaces of 200 Bq m(-3). Finally, in a limited series of dose assessments in domestic properties, we found that doses could considerably exceed 5 mSv at the 200 Bq m(-3) Action Level, primarily because the sample included an example of high occupancy, in our case several Asian wives in purdah, whose occupancy was almost total.     

Indoor 222Rn measurements in the region of Beijing, People's Republic of China

Passive integrating activated C detectors were used to study the regional distribution and temporal variation of 222Rn in indoor air in dwellings in the Beijing region. Measurements were made in 537 dwellings, which were either detached houses or multi-family apartments. The city-wide study was completed in 1985. The distributions are approximately log-normal with 90% of the dwellings having 222Rn levels less than 60 Bq m-3. The weighted average 222Rn concentration has been found to be 22.4 Bq m-3. Averages for detached houses and multi-family dwellings are 25.9 and 15.2 Bq m-3, respectively. Assuming an equilibrium factor of 0.5 and an occupancy factor of 0.8, the average equilibrium equivalent concentration of 222Rn progeny is 11.2 Bq m-3 and the annual average effective dose equivalent is 1.1 mSv.     

Exposure to atmospheric radon.

We measured radon (222Rn) concentrations in Iowa and Minnesota and found that unusually high annual average radon concentrations occur outdoors in portions of central North America. In some areas, outdoor concentrations exceed the national average indoor radon concentration. The general spatial patterns of outdoor radon and indoor radon are similar to the spatial distribution of radon progeny in the soil. Outdoor radon exposure in this region can be a substantial fraction of an individual's total radon exposure and is highly variable across the population. Estimated lifetime effective dose equivalents for the women participants in a radon-related lung cancer study varied by a factor of two at the median dose, 8 mSv, and ranged up to 60 mSv (6 rem). Failure to include these doses can reduce the statistical power of epidemiologic studies that examine the lung cancer risk associated with residential radon exposure.     

Assessment of natural radioactivity and radon exhalation rate in Sannur cave, eastern desert of Egypt.

Activity concentrations of 238U, 232Th and 40K in rocks and soil samples collected from Sannur cave, Beni Suef governorate, eastern desert of Egypt, were determined using the high-resolution gamma spectrometry technique. The results show that the concentrations of the naturally occurring radionuclides are the following: 238U ranged from 8.51 +/- 1.23 to 20.66 +/- 2.12 Bq kg(-1), 232Th ranged from 7.69 +/- 1.02 to 22.73 +/- 1.60 Bq kg(-1) and 40K ranged from 185.74 +/- 0.42 to 2084.70 +/- 23.30 Bq kg(-1). The radium equivalent activity (Raeq), the absorbed dose rate (D), and the external hazard index (Hex) were also calculated and compared to the international recommended values. The radon concentration and radon exhalation rate from the rock and soil samples were measured using the Can technique. The average value of annual effective dose for cave workers is 1.98 mSv y(-1), while for visitors it is 2.4 microSv per visit. The radon exhalation rate varies from 0.21 +/- 0.03 to 1.28 +/- 0.02 Bq m(-2) h(-1). A positive correlation has been observed between uranium content and radon exhalation rate.     

Study of indoor radon levels in high-rise air-conditioned office buildings

A series of measurements were conducted to study the indoor radon pollution in air-conditioned high-rise office buildings. Continuous monitoring of indoor radon levels in nine air-conditioned premises located in six office buildings in Hong Kong was conducted from August 1996 to February 1998. Each of the tests lasted for at least 48 hours. The measurement covered both day time monitoring while the air-conditioning was on and night time monitoring while the air-conditioning was off. The indoor radon level followed inversely the operation pattern of the mechanical ventilation systems in the buildings. During office hours when the mechanical ventilation was on, the indoor radon level decayed and after the mechanical ventilation was off during non-office hours, the radon level increased. The average indoor radon level during office hours on the nine premises varied from 87 Bq/m3 to 296 Bq/m3, and the indoor averaged radon levels over both day time and night time periods without mechanical ventilation were about 25 percent higher. The air infiltration rate and the radon emission characteristics from the building materials were estimated from the radon build-up curves which were observed after the mechanical ventilation was off. The radon decay curve observed after the mechanical ventilation system was turned on was used to calculate the total fresh air intake rate. Average radon emanation rates of the building materials in the six buildings varied from 0.0019 to 0.0033 Bq/m2s. It has been found that building infiltration rate accounted for about 10-30 percent of the total building ventilation rate in the buildings depending on building tightness.     

Influence of soil and buildings on outdoor gamma dose rates in São Paulo, Brazil

This work analyzes the influence of the most abundant natural gamma emitters in soil (226Ra, 232Th, and 40K) on the total outdoor gamma dose rate in the city of S?o Paulo, Brazil. A new method is introduced to determine gamma dose rates due to soil 1 m above the ground through measurements performed deep in the soil. This allows evaluation of the soil component even in places where the measurement at 1 m height is influenced by other sources (mainly the presence of buildings). The methodology was tested in non-urbanized areas by comparing direct dose rate measurements in air with those deep in soil. In addition, high-resolution gamma ray spectrometry of soil samples collected throughout the city was used to determine the natural radionuclide concentrations, allowing the comparison with the in-situ dose rate results. Measurements deep in soil followed a log-normal distribution. The fitted geometric mean (median) and geometric standard deviation of the soil contribution to the ambient dose equivalent rate at 1 m height were, respectively, 80.9(6) and 0.642(4) nSv h(-1). Compared to previous data, these values show that buildings enhance about 35% the outdoor gamma dose rate expected only from soil. The specific activities of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K in dry soil, given by their medians, were, respectively, 41, 75, and 176 Bq k(-1). These results reveal that the terrestrial gamma dose rates in S?o Paulo are higher than the world average, a fact that can be attributed to high thorium concentration. Direct measurements of dose rates were compared to the corresponding values determined from radionuclide concentrations in soil. Good agreement between methods was found.     

Radon in Irish schools: the results of a national survey.

This paper presents the results of a survey of radon concentrations in Irish primary and post-primary schools. The objective of this survey was to assess the distribution of radon in Irish schools and to identify those requiring remedial work to reduce radon exposure to children and staff. All primary and post-primary schools were invited to participate in the survey. Indoor radon concentrations were measured during the academic year using integrating passive alpha track-etch detectors with a measurement period from three to nine months. The survey was carried out on a phased basis from 1998 to 2004 and is one of the most comprehensive of its kind undertaken in Europe. Measurements were completed in 38 531 ground floor classrooms and offices in 3826 schools, representing over 95% of the approximate 4000 primary and post-primary schools in Ireland. Of these, 984 schools had radon concentrations greater than 200 Bq m(-3) in 3028 rooms and 329 schools had radon concentrations in excess of 400 Bq m(-3) in 800 rooms. The average radon concentration in schools was 93 Bq m(-3). This results in an annual average effective dose to an Irish child from exposure to radon of 0.3 mSv per year, assuming that the long-term radon concentration is equal to the radon concentration present during the working hours and that the annual average occupancy is 1000 h per year. A programme of remediation of schools with radon concentrations above 200 Bq m(-3) has been put in place.