间质性肺炎急性加重患者机械通气的死亡危险因素分析

目的 本研究拟通过分析间质性肺炎急性加重患者呼吸衰竭时的发病情况和支持治疗情况,探究此类患者的死亡危险因素,以寻找对此类患者的最合适治疗策略.方法 回顾性地分析了2010年9月到2013年9月北京协和医院急诊监护室收治的26例间质性肺炎急性加重患者.比较存活组患者和死亡组患者的发病情况、支持治疗情况和对无创通气的反应情况.结果 死亡组和生存组发病时各指标比较差异均无统计学意义.但和特发性肺纤维化(IPF)比较,结缔组织病相关间质性肺炎在存活组中所占比例有更高的倾向.死亡组和生存组比较,气管插管有创通气的比例显著增大(14％ vs.84％,P＜0.05).生存组无创通气2h后PaO2/FiO2较通气前差异有统计学意义(176 ±110 vs.218±64,P＜0.05),而死亡组无创通气2h后PaO2/FiO2较通气前差异无统计学意义.结论 在间质性肺炎急性加重患者中,结缔组织病相关间质性肺炎的预后较IPF可能会更好一些.间质性肺炎急性加重患者一旦气管插管则病死率很高,给此类患者行气管插管需谨慎.无创通气2h后PaO2/FiO2较前改善不佳的患者预后不佳.     

氧合指数与APACHEⅡ评分在慢性阻塞性肺疾病伴呼吸衰竭患者治疗中的应用价值

目的 探讨氧合指数(PaO25/FiO2)和APACHE Ⅱ评分在慢性阻塞性肺疾病(COPD)伴呼吸衰竭患者的诊治过程中的应用价值.方法 采集我院急诊科和ICU收治的72例COPD伴呼吸衰竭患者入院时的血气分析结果,计算出PaO2/FiO2,对不同分组情况下的PaO2/FiO2与APACHEⅡ评分值进行比较.结果 随着APACHEⅡ评分值的升高,COPD伴呼吸衰竭患者的PaO2/FiO2下降不明显(P>0.05);机械通气组的APACHEⅡ评分值、PaO2/FiO2明显区别于无机械通气组(P<0.05);无创通气组的APACHEⅡ评分值明显低于有创通气组(P<0.05),两组间PaO2/FiO2无统计学意义(P>0.05).结论 APACHEⅡ评分值的升高与患者的PaO2/FiO2下降不相关,但PaO2/FiO2与APACHE Ⅱ评分系统都适合作为预测机械通气治疗的指标,而且APACHE Ⅱ评分更适合于帮助选择适宜的通气方式.     

连续性高容量血液滤过治疗重度急性呼吸窘迫综合征的临床疗效

目的 探讨连续性高容量血液滤过(CHVHF)治疗重度急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)的临床疗效.方法 采用前瞻性随机对照研究方法,选择2007年6月至2011年6月入住本院重症监护病房(ICU)的65例重度ARDS患者进行研究,按照随机数字表法分为治疗组(37例)和对照组(28例),对照组给予常规治疗,治疗组在常规治疗基础上应用CHVHF治疗.观察两组患者治疗前及治疗后6、24、48、72 h肺功能指标氧合指数(PaO2/FiO2)、血管外肺水指数(EVLWI)、动脉血二氧化碳分压(PaCO2),以及血流动力学参数如心率(HR)、平均动脉压(MAP)的变化,并观察机械通气的持续时间、住ICU天数、撤机成功率、28 d存活率等指标.结果 两组治疗后肺功能指标较治疗前均有明显改善,随治疗时间延长PaO2/FiO2(mm Hg,1 mm Hg=0.133kPa)逐渐升高,EVLWI (ml/kg)、PaCO2(mm Hg)逐渐下降,且治疗组较对照组改善明显(6 h PaO2/FiO2:92.6±7.2比83.8±11.4,24 h EVLWI:10.8±3.7比12.6±4.5,24 h PaCO2:47.2±8.5比51.4±4.8,均P＜0.05).两组治疗后血流动力学指标HR、MAP较治疗前明显改善,但两组间比较差异无统计学意义.与对照组比较,治疗组机械通气时间(d)、住ICU天数(d)明显缩短(机械通气时间:12±4比19±6,住ICU天数:21±4比33±8,均P＜0.05),撤机成功率、28 d存活率明显升高(撤机成功率:81.1％比64.3％,28 d存活率:86.5％比71.4％,均P＜0.05).结论 重度ARDS患者采用CHVHF治疗能明显改善肺功能,缩短机械通气时间,提高机械通气撤机成功率,降低病死率,对血流动力学无明显不利影响.     

甲型H1N1流感危重症临床特点及危险因素分析

目的 了解甲型H1N1流感(甲流)危重症患者的临床特点,分析其死亡相关危险因素.方法 采用多中心研究方法,回顾性分析郑州市4家医院2009年10月至2010年2月住院的128例甲流危重症患者的临床数据,比较存活组(110例)与死亡组(18例)患者的临床特点;对年龄>14岁的成人患者,以性别、是否妊娠、基础疾病数量、心率、平均动脉压、pH值、动脉血氧分压(PaO2)、氧合指数(PaO2/FiO2)、是否有呼吸衰竭、是否出现急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)、单肺或双肺病变、是否使用糖皮质激素作为变量进行二元Logistic回归分析,探讨甲流危重症患者死亡的相关危险因素.结果 128例患者中孕妇病死率显著高于儿童和成人非孕妇患者[37.5%(6/16)比12.5%(4/32)、10.0%(8/80),P=0.044和P=0.0003.死亡组呼吸衰竭、ARDS、有创机械通气、有合并症的比例(分别为83.3%、33.3%、66.7%、77.8%)及心率[(114士25)次/min]均显著高于生存组[37.3%、9.1%、12.7%、51.8%、(101+21)次/min);pH值、PaO2(mm Hg,1 mm Hg=0.133 kPa)、PaO2/FiO2(mm Hg)均显著低于生存组(pH值:7.149±0.404比7.398±0.157,PaO2:58.57±36.85比85.78±36.10,PaO2/FiO2:118.17±105.52比259.25±174.91);使用糖皮质激素的比例多于生存组(77.8%比36.4%,P<0.01),且使用时间(d)明显长于生存组(8.3+8.0比2.64±4.2,P<0.05).Logistic回归分析显不,妊娠[相对比值比(OR)为6.642,P=0.011]及ARDS(OR=10.603,P=0.001)是成人甲流危重症患者的死亡危险因素.结论 在甲流危重症患者中,孕妇的死亡比例高于其他患者;有呼吸衰竭、特别是ARDS患者和需要有创机械通气治疗者、有合并症者的死亡比例显著增加;死亡患者发病初期心率明显增快.糖皮质激素的过度使用可能不利于甲流危重症的控制.妊娠和ARDS是甲流危重症成人患者死亡的高危因素.     

慢性阻塞性肺疾病机械通气患者呼出气冷凝液中过氧化氢和白细胞介素-6的监测及意义

目的 探讨呼吸重症监护病房(RICU)慢性阻塞性肺疾病(COPD)机械通气患者气道炎症反应与预后的关系.方法 30例COPD机械通气患者按预后分为存活组(16例)和死亡组(14例),采用自行设计的呼出气冷凝液(EBC)收集器收集机械通气1、3、5和7 d呼气端的EBC,用化学荧光法测定EBC中过氧化氢(H2O2)浓度,用酶联免疫吸附法测定EBC中白细胞介素-6(IL-6)含量.结果 ①存活组EBC中H2O2和IL-6含量逐渐下降,机械通气3、5、7 d较1 d明显降低[H2O2(μmol/L):0.10±0.03、0.06±0.03、0.04±0.03比0.19±0.14,IL-6(ng/L):11.11±2.39、10.35±2.09、8.89±2.63比14.45±6.03,均P<0.05];且7 d时EBC中H2O2浓度较3 d明显降低(P<0.05).②死亡组EBC中H2O2和IL-6含量逐渐升高,机械通气5 d和7 d EBC中H2O2浓度较1 d明显升高(0.16±0.15、0.25±0.16比0.05±0.03,均P<0.05);机械通气3、5和7 d IL-6含量较1 d明显升高(9.36±2.38、10.55±2.33、14.05±4.23比6.87±3.47,均P<0.05);7 d时EBC中H2O2和IL-6含量较3 d、5 d明显升高(均P<0.05).③与存活组比较,死亡组机械通气1 d EBC中H2O2和IL-6含量均明显降低(均P<0.05);3 d时差异无统计学意义(均P>0.05);5 d时H2O2浓度明显升高(P<0.05);7 d时H2O2和IL-6含量均明显升高(均P<0.05).④存活组和死亡组机械通气患者EBC中H2O2浓度和IL-6含量与急性生理学与慢性健康状况评分系统Ⅱ、Ⅲ(APACHEⅡ、Ⅲ)评分均无相关性(均P＞0.05).结论 EBC中H2O2水平和IL-6含量的高低与预后有关,故可作为COPD机械通气患者气道炎症反应的重要监测指标,并可作为评估其治疗和预后的重要监测指标.     

外周血单个核细胞miRNA-492和miRNA-155水平表达与SNAPPE-Ⅱ评分对儿童急性呼吸窘迫综合征预后价值研究

目的　探究外周血单个核细胞 miR-492和 miR-155表达水平与新生儿急性生理学评分围产期补充Ⅱ评分（ score for neonatal acute physiology perinatal extension,SNAPPE-Ⅱ）评价儿童急性呼吸窘迫综合征（ acute respiratory distress syndrome,ARDS）预后的价值。方法　选取 2019年 9月～ 2020年 11月兖矿新里程总医院及山东大学齐鲁儿童医院收治的 ARDS患儿 70例,分为死亡组（ n=18）和存活组（ n=52）,同期健康体检儿童 36例为对照组。比较三组 miR492,miR-155,氧合指数（ PaO2/FiO2）,SNAPPE-Ⅱ评分及急性生理与慢性健康（ acute physiology and chronic health evaluation Ⅱ,APACHEⅡ）评分。分析 3个指标与 PaO2/FiO2和 APACHEⅡ评分间的相关性及预测死亡的价值。结果　三组儿童 PaO2/FiO2(448.64±85.54, 269.64±31.53, 165.64±27.63 mmHg),APACHEⅡ评分 (5.74±1.42, 20.54±4.29, 29.65±5.43分 )、SNAPPE-Ⅱ评分（ 5.95±1.75,15.86±3.75, 36.45±5.32分）、 miR-492(3.75±0.98, 5.63±1.41, 9.54±2.25)和 miR-155(1.75±0.95, 3.84±0.53, 5.64±1.74)水平比较,差异均有统计学意义（均 P＜ 0.05）。ARDS 存活组与 ARDS死亡组患儿 PaO2/FiO2,APACHEⅡ评分、SNAPPE-Ⅱ评分、miR-492, miR-155水平比较,差异均有统计学意义（ t =9.245~16.546, 均 P<0.001）。PaO2/FiO2与 miR-492,miR-155和 SNAPPE-Ⅱ评分呈负相关（r =-0.584, -0.623, -0.594, 均 P＜ 0.05）;APACHEⅡ评分与 miR-492,miR-155和 SNAPPE-Ⅱ评分呈正相关（ r =0.863, 0.868, 0.757,均 P＜ 0.05）。三指标联合预测死亡诊断效能高于单一指标,临界值 miR-492为 0.84,miR-155为 1.43,SNAPPE-Ⅱ评分为 22.8。结论　miR-492,miR-155和 SNAPPE-Ⅱ评分联合检测能够有效预测 ARDS患儿预后,当 miR-492＞ 0.84,miR-155＞ 1.43和 SNAPPE-Ⅱ评分＞ 22.8分时,ARDS患儿的死亡率较高。     

俯卧位通气对高海拔地区肺复张治疗无效急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者氧合的影响

目的 探讨俯卧位通气对高海拔地区肺复张术(RM)治疗无效急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)患者的治疗作用.方法 从海拔2260m的地区医院筛选RM治疗无效的41例ARDS患者[平均氧合指数( PaO2/FiO2)较RM前升高＜20％视为RM无效],依不同病因分为肺内源性ARDS组(ARDSp组)和肺外源性ARDS组(ARDSexp组),每组再按信封法随机分为俯卧位组和仰卧位组,即ARDSp俯卧位组(11例)、ARDSp仰卧位组(9例)、ARDSexp俯卧位组(10例)、ARDSexp仰卧位组(11例).在通气前及通气1、2、3、4h监测动脉血氧分压( PaO2)、PaO2/FiO2、静态顺应性(Cst)、气道阻力(Raw)的变化.结果 通气lh时,ARDSexp俯卧位组PaO2/FiO2( mm Hg,l mm Hg=0.133 kPa)即较通气前显著升高(157.4±40.6比129.3±48.7,P＜0.05),并随通气时间延长呈持续增高趋势,4h达峰值(219.1 ±41.1);且ARDSexp俯卧位组通气3h内PaO2/FiO2较其他3组显著增高,另3组间则差异无统计学意义.ARDSp俯卧位组、ARDSexp俯卧位组通气4h时PaO2/FiO2均较相应仰卧位组显著增高(208.8±39.7比127.4±47.1,219.1±41.1比124.9±50.8,均P＜0.05).4组通气前后Cst无显著改变,各组间差异也无统计学意义.ARDSp俯卧位组通气4h时Raw(cmH2O·L-1·s-1)较通气前显著降低(6.8±1.7比10.7±1.8,P＜0.05),且明显低于其他3组;其他3组各时间点Raw组内及组间比较差异均无统计学意义.结论 俯卧位通气作为ARDS机械通气重要策略之一,可以改善RM无效高原ARDS患者的氧合,为抢救患者赢得宝贵的时间.     

死腔分数与早期急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者预后的关系

目的 探讨死腔分数(VD/VT)与早期急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)患者预后的关系.方法 前瞻性临床研究,纳入2009年6月至2010年5月间东南大学附属中大医院ICU符合早期ARDS诊断标准(发病时间＜3 d)的机械通气患者23例,采用单次呼吸CO2图法测定VD/VT.记录患者一般情况、心率、呼吸、平均动脉压、急性生理和慢性健康( APACHEⅡ)评分、Murray评分、功能残气量(FRC)、PaO2/FiO2、平台压、肺准静态顺应性、住院28 d病死率;根据患者入ICU 28 d预后分为存活组和死亡组,探讨VD/VT对ARDS患者预后的预测判断价值.结果 ARDS患者发病早期VD/VT明显升高,为(0.59 ±0.09),FRC明显下降,为(1643±409)ml;23例患者中存活11例,死亡12例,28 d住院病死率52.2％ (12/23),死亡组VD/VT明显高于存活组[(0.64±0.08) vs.(0.53±0.04),P＜0.05].患者VD/VT与Murray评分之间有显著相关性(相关系数为0.464,P=0.026).VD/VT预测预后的受试者操作曲线(ROC)下面积为0.867 (P＜0.05),以0.57为临界值预测预后的敏感性及特异性分别为:0.83和0.82,显著高于FRC、Murray评分、APACHEⅡ评分.结论 ARDS早期患者死腔分数明显升高,死腔分数对ARDS早期患者预后评估有指导价值.     

PiCCO监测在神经源性肺水肿患者中的应用研究

目的 探讨脉搏指示连续心排血量(PiCCO)监测在神经源性肺水肿(NPE)患者中的应用,评估容量参数胸腔内血容量指数(ITBVI)、全心舒张期末容量指数(GEDVI)及压力参数中心静脉压(CVP)对NPE严重程度评估的准确性,评价血管外肺水指数(EVLWI)对NPE患者预后判断的意义.方法 采用前瞻性临床观察研究方法,对36例并发NPE的神经科危重患者,采用PiCCO监测平均动脉压(MAP)、心排血指数(CI)、CVP、ITBVI、GEDVI、EVLWI、肺血管通透性指数(PVPI)等指标,ITBVI、GEDVI、CVP与EVLWI之间进行相关性分析;根据患者结局分为死亡组与存活组,比较两组在治疗前及治疗3d的EVLWI变化.结果 EVLWI与ITBVI呈显著正相关(r=0.54,P＜0.001),与GEDVI呈显著正相关(r=0.62,P＜0.0001),而与CVP无显著相关性(r=0.12,P＞0.05);PVPI、EVLWI与氧合指数(PaO2/FiO2)均呈显著负相关(r=-0.55、P＜0.001,r=-0.48、P＜ 0.05).存活组与死亡组治疗前EVLWI(ml/kg)水平差异无统计学意义(8.6±2.6比9.4±1.8,P＞0.05);存活组治疗3d后EVLWI水平明显低于治疗前(6.92±1.64比8.64±2.62,P＜0.05),且明显低于死亡组治疗3d后(6.92±1.64比9.88±2.44,P＜0.05).结论 容量参数GEDVI、ITBVI比压力参数CVP评估NPE患者的EVLWI更为准确、可靠;NPE患者PVPI、EVLWI越高,PaO2/FiO2越低;动态观察NPE患者的EVLWI可评估预后.     

早期乳酸清除率对重症慢性阻塞性肺疾病患者预后的评估

目的 探讨早期乳酸清除率对重症慢性阻塞性肺疾病(COPD)患者的临床意义.方法 选取COPD合并呼吸衰竭住院患者108例进行前瞻性观察研究,根据患者病情转归分为存活组82例、死亡组26例;存活组中根据是否行有创机械通气治疗再分为常规治疗组55例、有创机械通气组27例.测定患者治疗前与治疗6 h后的动脉血乳酸、动脉血气、急性生理与慢性健康状况(APACHE)Ⅱ评分及早期(6 h)乳酸清除率.同时以早期乳酸清除率10%为临界值分为高、低乳酸清除率两组,分析早期乳酸清除率与预后的关系.结果 治疗前有创机械通气组与死亡组比较,动脉血乳酸、pH值、PaCO2、PaO2、APACHEⅡ、氧合指数等差异均无统计学意义.治疗6 h后常规治疗组、有创机械通气组分别与死亡组比较,早期乳酸清除率有统计学意义(P＜0.01),APACHEⅡ评分、pH值差异均无统计学意义.存活病例两组比较,治疗6 h后各项指标包括早期乳酸清除率差异均无统计学意义(P＞0.05).三组治疗前、后自身对比中每组APACHEⅡ评分均无统计学意义.高乳酸清除率组病死率4.2%,显著低于低乳酸清除率组62.2%,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.01).结论 早期乳酸清除率可作为评估重症COPD患者病情严重程度、初始治疗效果和预后的指标之一.     

Determination of creatine kinase isoenzyme MB activity in serum using immunological inhibition of creatine kinase M subunit activity. Activity kinetics and diagnostic significance in myocardial infarction.

This is a new method for the determination of creatine kinase isoenzyme MB activity in serum. The method uses direct activity measurement of creatine kinase B subunit activity after blocking of CK-M subunit activity by inhibiting antibodies. The test takes no longer than 15 min. The method yields an intra-serial C.V. of 2.0-12.9%, and a C.V. from day to day of 5.5%. The detection limit is 3.4 U/l creatine kinase MB. In the 95 cases with proven myocardial infarction several types of creatine kinase MB activity kinetics could be determined. The percentage of creatine kinase MB of peak CK-total is 6-25%, with a mean of 11.1%. The amount of creatine kinase MB with respect to total CK activity after reinfarction is higher than the amount after initial infarction.     

Dissociable correlates of two classes of retrieval processing in prefrontal cortex

Although substantial evidence suggests that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) implements processes that are critical for accurate episodic memory judgments, the specific roles of different PFC subregions remain unclear. Here, we used event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging to distinguish between prefrontal activity related to operations that (1) influence processing of retrieval cues based on current task demands, or (2) are involved in monitoring the outputs of retrieval. Fourteen participants studied auditory words spoken by a male or female speaker and completed memory tests in which the stimuli were unstudied foil words and studied words spoken by either the same speaker at study, or the alternate speaker. On "general" test trials, participants were to determine whether each word was studied, regardless of the voice of the speaker, whereas on "specific" test trials, participants were to additionally distinguish between studied words that were spoken in the same voice or a different voice at study. Thus, on specific test trials, participants were explicitly required to attend to voice information in order to evaluate each test item. Anterior (right BA 10), dorsolateral prefrontal (right BA 46), and inferior frontal (bilateral BA 47/12) regions were more active during specific than during general trials. Activation in anterior and dorsolateral PFC was enhanced during specific test trials even in response to unstudied items, suggesting that activation in these regions was related to the differential processing of retrieval cues in the two tasks. In contrast, differences between specific and general test trials in inferior frontal regions (bilateral BA 47/12) were seen only for studied items, suggesting a role for these regions in post-retrieval monitoring processes. Results from this study are consistent with the idea that different PFC subregions implement distinct, but complementary processes that collectively support accurate episodic memory judgments.     

Digital imaging among medical facilities

The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) in the USA operates a network of 172 medical centres which all utilize a hospital information system (HIS) which has been developed and is currently maintained by the VA. During the past several years, an image management and communication module has been developed, installed and clinically utilized at the Washington DC and Maryland VA Medical Centres. This image management and communication system, referred to as the decentralized hospital computer program (DHCP) imaging system, is fully integrated with a commercial picture archiving and communication system (PACS). The system is utilized to capture, archive, and display all images generated within the hospital including radiology, nuclear medicine, pathology, endoscopy, bronchoscopy, and dermatology, intraoperative photographs, ECG data, and a limited number of paper documents. The ultimate goal of the project is to have all patient text and image data available at any clinical workstation to any authorized user anywhere within the network of medical centres. Clinical requirements for an imaging workstation include ease of use, rapid and reliable access to the complete set of patient information, and images which are of acceptable quality to meet the requirements of the user and the subspecialty. Patient confidentiality and data security must be safeguarded at all times. Integration of the images with the remainder of the patient's database was found to be critical to the success of the project. The experience at the Washington and Maryland facilities suggests that an imaging system that is successfully integrated with a hospital information system can provide substantial clinical and economic benefits both within and among medical centres. Clinical acceptance and utilization of the system has been excellent, particularly in diagnostic radiology where DHCP Imaging has been interfaced to a commercial PAC system. Based upon this initial experience, the VA has begun to deploy the system throughout its large network of medical centres.     

Myocardial elastography at both high temporal and spatial resolution for the detection of infarcts

Myocardial elastography is a novel method for noninvasively assessing regional myocardial function, with the advantages of high spatial and temporal resolution and high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). In this paper, in-vivo experiments were performed in anesthetized normal and infarcted mice (one day after left anterior descending coronary artery [LAD] ligation) using a high-resolution (30 MHz) ultrasound system (Vevo 770, VisualSonics Inc., Toronto, ON, Canada). Radiofrequency (RF) signals of the left ventricle (LV) in longitudinal (long-axis) view and the associated electrocardiogram (ECG) were simultaneously acquired. Using a retrospective ECG gating technique, 2-D full field-of-view RF frames were acquired at an extremely high frame rate (8 kHz) that resulted in high-quality incremental displacement and strain estimation of the myocardium. The incremental results were further accumulated to obtain the cumulative displacements and strains. Two-dimensional and M-mode displacement images and strain images (elastograms), as well as displacement and strain profiles as a function of time, were compared between normal and infarcted mice. Incremental results clearly depicted cardiac events including LV contraction, LV relaxation and isovolumetric phases in both normal and infarcted mice, and also evidently indicated reduced motion and deformation in the infarcted myocardium. The elastograms indicated that the infarcted regions underwent thinning during systole rather than thickening, as in the normal case. The cumulative elastograms were found to have higher elastographic SNR (SNR(e)) than the incremental elastograms (e.g., 10.6 vs. 4.7 in a normal myocardium, and 6.0 vs. 2.4 in an infarcted myocardium). Finally, preliminary statistical results from nine normal (m = 9) and seven infarcted (n = 7) mice indicated the capability of the cumulative strain in differentiating infracted from normal myocardia. In conclusion, myocardial elastography could provide regional strain information at simultaneously high temporal (>/=0.125 ms) and spatial ( approximately 55 microm) resolution as well as high precision ( approximately 0.05 microm displacement). This technique was thus capable of accurately characterizing normal myocardial function throughout an entire cardiac cycle, at the same high resolution, and detecting and localizing myocardial infarction in vivo.     

Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Morphine

Morphine, the most widely used mu-opioid analgesic for acute and chronic pain, is the standard against which new analgesics are measured. A thorough understanding of the pharmacokinetics of morphine is required in order to safely and effectively use this analgesic in a wide variety of patients with different levels of organ function. A MEDLINE search was conducted to identify literature published between 1966 and January 2002 relevant to the pharmacokinetics of morphine. These publications were reviewed and the literature summarized regarding unique and clinically important elements of morphine disposition relative to its parenteral administration (including intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, epidural and intrathecal administration), absorption profile (immediate release, controlled release, and sublingual/buccal, and rectal administration), distribution, and its metabolism/ excretion. Special populations, including infants, elderly, and those with renal/liver failure, have a unique morphine pharmacokinetic profile that must be taken into account in order to maximize analgesic efficacy and reduce the risk of adverse events.