The role of strategic health planning processes in the development of health care reform policies: a comparative study of Eritrea, Mozambique and Zimbabwe

This paper reports on comparative analysis of health planning and its relationship with health care reform in three countries, Eritrea, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. The research examined strategic planning in each country focusing in particular on its role in developing health sector reforms. The paper analyses the processes for strategic planning, the values that underpin the planning systems, and issues related to resources for planning processes. The resultant content of strategic plans is assessed and not seen to have driven the development of reforms; whilst each country had adopted strategic planning systems, in all three countries a more complex interplay of forces, including influences outside both the health sector and the country, had been critical forces behind the sectoral changes experienced over the previous decade. The key roles of different actors in developing the plans and reforms are also assessed. The paper concludes that a number of different conceptions of strategic planning exist and will depend on the particular context within which the health system is placed. Whilst similarities were discovered between strategic planning systems in the three countries, there are also key differences in terms of formality, timeframes, structures and degrees of inclusiveness. No clear leadership role for strategic planning in terms of health sector reforms was discovered. Planning appears in the three countries to be more operational than strategic.     

Institutional features of health insurance programs and their effects on developing country health systems

Many developing countries are considering insurance as an option for increasing resource availability in the health sector in order to alleviate financial crisis. In addition to its impact on revenues, however, an insurance program also affects the efficiency and equity of health service delivery. This article examines these consequences of health insurance by reviewing a number of critical institutional characteristics of insurance programs in four developing countries—Brazil, China, Korea and Zaire—and assessing their impact on the efficiency and equity of the health sector. The characteristics highlighted in the article are: the system for reimbursing providers; the services covered by insurance; the role of the insurer; the extent of beneficiary cost-sharing; and, the extent of the population covered by the insurance program. Indicators of health sector efficiency and equity affected by these characteristics reviewed are: cost escalation; resource allocation; the use of specific medical technologies; and, equity of access to services. Efficiency and equity problems are found to arise from the financial incentives facing providers coupled with their powerful influence over both the supply and demand for personal health services. Experience suggests that these problems are magnified when an insurer serves merely as a financial conduit for reimbursing providers. Efficiency and equity goals can be more effectively promoted by an insurance institution which actively organizes the entry of consumers into the health system and removes the financial incentives that encourage providers to increase the volume and cost of services.     

Health sector planning led by management of recurrent expenditure: an agenda for action-research

Health services in developing countries face a crisis of recurrent costs. Far from being able to fund primary health care (PHC) developments, governments now have difficulty in keeping existing health services in operation. This article proposes an approach to the problem based on the proactive planning and management of recurrent health expenditure. The system addresses existing services as well as future plans and allows explicit trade-offs to be made in resource allocation. This may be termed 'recurrent-expenditureled planning'. The article describes a diagnostic health sector review, which incorporates a recurrent expenditure profile in four planes: by type of provider, source of finance, level of care and recipient population group. A fifth dimension of time trends for certain expenditure categories can be added. The steps of a strategic planning cycle for health services resources are then described, which allows health service strategies to be tested for broad economic feasibility. It also results in the establishment of resource targets that can act as benchmarks against which actual levels of funding can be compared. The targets help to maintain sectoral priorities in resource allocation even in times of economic constraint and to channel funds preferentially to localities and facilities in greatest need. The system calls for innovations in the methods of health planning and financial management in the health sector. Implementation will require health systems action-research at the country level. The essential purpose is to promote PHC policy-led resource allocation and use. No amount of planning can substitute for political action to realize 'health for all', but this system provides technical support to the political forces in favour of distributive PHC policies.     

Family planning and sexual health organizations: management lessons for health system reform

Advocates of health system reform are calling for, among other things, decentralized, autonomous managerial and financial control, use of contracting and incentives, and a greater reliance on market mechanisms in the delivery of health services. The family planning and sexual health (FP&SH) sector already has experience of these. In this paper, we set forth three typical means of service provision within the FP&SH sector since the mid-1900s: independent not-for-profit providers, vertical government programmes and social marketing programmes. In each case, we present the context within which the service delivery mechanism evolved, the management techniques that characterize it and the lessons learned in FP&SH that are applicable to the wider debate about improving health sector management. We conclude that the FP&SH sector can provide both positive and negative lessons in the areas of autonomous management, use of incentives to providers and acceptors, balancing of centralization against decentralization, and employing private sector marketing and distribution techniques for delivering health services. This experience has not been adequately acknowledged in the debates about how to improve the quality and quantity of health services for the poor in developing countries. Health sector reform advocates and FP&SH advocates should collaborate within countries and regions to apply these management lessons.     

The management of health services in Tanzania: a plea for health sector reform

There are essentially four main approaches used in attempts to strengthen the management of health services in developing countries. These are: information system development; management training; use of planning and evaluation methodologies; and, health sector reform. As part of a collaborative research project based in Kisarawe District, Tanzania, we tested the hypothesis that a combination of the first three of these approaches would be sufficient to ensure that decisions and actions were taken to bring about major improvements in the management of health services. It was assumed that the decentralization, which took place as part of the 1982 reorganization of local government responsibilities, had provided managers with sufficient decision-making autonomy to allow them to bring about improvement in health service performance, provided that the other conditions were met. In fact, it was found that despite being presented with clear evidence of serious inefficiencies and inequities in the allocation of health resources, managers were often highly reluctant to decide upon actions which would alleviate the problems in situations where there were potential losers as well as winners, even if the benefits greatly outweighed the costs. This article argues that interventions based solely on training, information systems, or planning and evaluation protocols will make only marginal improvements to health service management, and that changes to the system as a whole are needed in order to provide managers and health professionals with incentives to rectify performance failings. Some ideas for health sector reform, to give managers power and incentives for improving efficiency and quality of care, are put forward. Since it is likely that the systemic problems of the health sector in Tanzania are shared by many other developing countries, the lessons drawn from this study probably have more general applicability.     

The public and private sectors in health: economic issues

Major changes in the public/private mix of health services are occurring in many countries. These changes may be analysed by examining the financing and provision of services and subsidization of the purchase of the factors of production. The public sector and not-for-profit and for-profit elements of the private sector must be viewed as separate entities in such analyses due to their differing objectives, motives and form of operation. The issues to be dealt with by countries in finding the public/private mix which is appropriate for their health system and achieves their objectives include efficiency, quality, regulation, equity and consumer choice and satisfaction. The recommendations for action for countries include: promoting collaboration between private and public sectors; testing different public/private mix models; identifying appropriate expansion paths for private sector services; improving information for policy and planning decisions; enhancing management capacity; and, reviewing programme and project support. International agencies also have a role in this process by supporting countries through the provision of technical assistance, financial aid, promoting policy reviews, and facilitating the sharing of information and experiences among countries concerning these public/private mix issues.     

Die Krankenhausversorgung im internationalen Vergleich

The article deals with data on expenditure, capacities and services of hospitals in comparative perspective and information on the structure of the health care systems and the hospital sector in OECD member states. International comparison shows that German hospitals by no means are particularly expensive. Therefore, the fact that Germany’s health care sector is very costly is explained by other factors, i.e. comparatively high costs of pharmaceuticals. In addition, the article shows that countries with social insurance-based health care systems usually favor the planning of hospital capacities by public authorities, not by the social health insurance funds. Like in Germany, in most other countries different systems for the financing of capital and running costs do exist. DRGs are getting more important everywhere, however, there is no example for a country using DRGs as a remuneration system for all hospital services.     

Community participation in international health: practical recommendations for donor and recipient organizations.

This article discusses the need for donor agencies and recipient organizations to involve target communities in the conceptualization, development, monitoring, and implementation of health services and programs in international health. This paper assumes that most donor organizations are based in industrialized countries. Given that resources are finite in both developing and developed countries, the article briefly reviews the current trend of declining public funds for health systems and an increasing role for privately funded health services worldwide. The article calls for community-based international health services that reflect the priorities of target populations, and it also discusses practical steps to involve local populations in community-based health planning and management in international health.     

A shared mission? Changing relationships between government and church health services in Africa

This article reviews the relationships between government and church health providers within sub-Saharan Africa with a particular focus on East and Southern Africa. This is of particular interest at this time, given the changing configuration of the health sector in many countries as a result of health sector reform policies. The article provides a historical overview of the development and emerging role of the church health services within this changing environment. The factors affecting the relationship between the government and church sector are identified. These include differences in objectives, types of service provided, and the organizational culture and management styles. The paper then explores key issues seen to affect the future pattern of relationships including the changing scene, and identifies different models for relationships and implications for key actors including the Ministry of Health, church health agencies and coordinating bodies. The article concludes that church health services will continue to play a key role in health care in sub-Saharan Africa; however, there are challenges facing them and both parties need to develop a response to these.     

Changes in American opinion about family planning

A 1998 public opinion survey conducted in the United States indicated high levels of support for many family planning policies, including US health insurance coverage of family planning services and US sponsorship of family planning programs in developing countries. To gauge changes in opinion on these issues since then, some of the 1998 questions were asked in an omnibus 2003 survey. The results indicate continuing high support for requiring US health insurers to cover family planning services (87 percent in 1998 and 84 percent in 2003), but some loss of support (from 80 to 69 percent) for US sponsorship of family planning programs in developing countries. Opinion remains divided on the policy of prohibiting nongovernmental organizations from receiving federal funding for performing or actively promoting abortion services. The authors explore several possible explanations for these findings, including the role changing presidential policy may have had in shaping opinion regarding family planning aid for developing countries.     

Creating options in family planning for the private sector in Latin America.

The countries of Latin America and the Caribbean are facing the gradual phase-out of international-donor support of contraceptive commodities and technical and management assistance, as well as an increased reliance on limited public sector resources and a limited private sector role in providing contraceptives to the public. Therefore, those nations must develop multisectoral strategies to achieve contraceptive security. The countries need to consider information about the market for family planning commodities and services in order to define and promote complementary roles for the public sector, the commercial sector, and the nongovernmental-organization sector, as well as to better identify which segments of the population each of those sectors should serve. While it is unable to mandate private sector participation, the public sector can create conditions that support and promote a greater role for the private sector in meeting the growing needs of family planning users. Taking steps to actively involve and expand the private sector's market share is a critical strategy for achieving a more equitable distribution of available resources, addressing unmet need, and creating a more sustainable future for family planning commodities and services. This paper also discusses in detail the experiences of two countries, Paraguay and Peru. Paraguay's family planning market illustrates a vibrant private sector, but with limited access to family planning commodities and services for those who cannot afford private sector prices. In Peru a 1995 policy change that sought to increase family planning coverage had the effect of restricting access for the poor and leaving the Ministry of Health unable to pay for the growing need for family planning commodities and services.     

1978: a good year, but a vintage past its best

This article is intended to stimulate debate. Where does public health planning in developing countries need to go if it is to focus on the challenges of meeting the health needs of the poor and increasing the accountability and performance of health services? The article concludes that Alma Ata vintage public health planning has frozen many health ministries in a non-monetarised world. The effects, are systematic obstacles to using many technologies available in other sectors to improve accountability and performance through better business planning and control. High time for an Alma Ata II Conference.     

Synergies between veterinarians and para-professionals in the public and private sectors: organisational and institutional relationships that facilitate the process of privatising animal health services in developing countries

The delivery of veterinary services in most developing countries was, until recently, considered to be the responsibility of the public sector. However, over the past four decades, economic constraints and the imposition of structural adjustment policies (SAPs) have led to a gradual decline in public sector investment in real terms and thus a reduction in the quality and quantity of services available to livestock keepers. Many governments acknowledged that they were no longer able to provide services that were essentially of a 'private good' nature and introduced radical policy changes which sought to introduce the concepts of a market orientated approach towards agriculture and livestock production in particular. The role of government, in the future, would be to provide a reduced range of essential 'public good' services and to create a favourable environment in which the private sector could become established as a provider of 'private good' services and at the same time act as a partner in carrying out certain public functions under contract or 'sanitary mandates'. In almost all developing countries, however, these policy changes were not accompanied by appropriate development strategies. The reasons for this are complex. Firstly, SAPs may be considered to have been foisted upon governments by donors and are thus perceived by many policy-makers as the cause of financial problems, rather than a solution to them. Secondly, most animal health senior policy-makers in the public sector have been trained as veterinarians and lack the required management skills to plan change effectively. Furthermore, as regards clinical veterinary service delivery, especially in rural or more remote areas, the solution fostered by donor investment, which involves deregulation and the deployment of privately operating para-professionals, is often perceived as a threat to the veterinary profession and might result in limiting access to international markets for the trade of livestock and livestock products. An informal delivery system has gained a foothold in many developing countries in the absence of a well-planned strategy for the privatisation of animal health services. Most governments would now acknowledge that this presents a greater risk than the deployment of well-regulated and effectively supervised para-professionals. This paper explores some of the principal challenges facing policy-makers in their efforts to bridge the transition from full state provision of animal health services to the formation of a partnership with the private sector. Governments and donors need to take active steps to facilitate the process of privatisation of animal health services, especially those targeting the poorer rural subsistence and pastoralist farming systems. This would entail an initial investment in developing the necessary management skills at all levels in the delivery system. Thereafter, further investment would be required to allow the changes to be managed using tools such as the strategic planning cycle. Should sufficient resources be made available to allow the full participation of all stakeholders in the delivery of animal health services, appropriate institutions and effective organisational relationships addressing all the more important issues will have to be identified. The paper then proceeds to describe how different livestock production systems determine the level of demand for animal health services. If these services are to be provided on a financially sustainable basis, they must be tailored to meet actual rather than perceived demand. Identifying an appropriate model for animal health service delivery thus requires careful analysis of the production system to be targeted. Governments and donors can play a useful role in providing resources for this type of study as well as for appropriate market studies, business planning, training and access to soft loans. Finally, as regards regulation, as the law stands today, many activities currently practised by para-professionals are classified as 'acts of veterinary medicine or surgery' and may only legally be performed by qualified and registered veterinarians. The concept of 'principal' and 'subsidiary' legislation provides the necessary flexibility in the regulation of the delivery of animal health services to accommodate the rapid changes taking place in this environment today. Deregulation involves the delegation of responsibility for the performance of a defined range of veterinary interventions to para-professionals under the 'supervision' or 'direction' of a registered veterinarian. The author illustrates how the experiences of a number of projects in Tanzania were used to propose a definition of 'supervision' in law. The definition offers an opportunity to overcome the fear of compromising standards of delivery of animal health services through the deployment of para-professionals. In addition, such functioning provides employment opportunities for private veterinarians in rural areas where access to formal primary animal health services would otherwise be denied and may contribute to the process of quality assurance of national veterinary services in developing countries.     

Crossing the public-private sector divide with reproductive health in Cambodia: out-patient services in a local NGO and the national MCH clinic

Set within the context of recent literature on the private-public divide in the health sector of developing countries generally and Asia specifically, this study considers the major government and the major indigenous non-government clinics offering out-patient reproductive health services in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Reproductive health is of critical importance in Cambodia, which has one of the highest levels of unmet need for family planning in the developing world and suffers from what is arguably the most severe STD and HIV/AIDS problem in Asia. The study is unusual in that it examines and compares aspects of service delivery and pricing along with the socio-economic profile and health-seeking behaviour of clients self-selecting services in the two settings. The socio-economic status of clients was much higher than the norm in Cambodia but did not differ significantly between the two clinics. A few service indicators suggested that the quality of care was better in the NGO clinic. Underlying variables--such as the broader mandate of the public sector institution and the significant discrepancy between public and private sector salaries--offer an obvious explanation for these differences. The Ministry of Health in Cambodia has been developing policies related to the NGO sector, which has expanded rapidly in Cambodia during the 1990s, and it is struggling to increase staff remuneration within the public sector.     

Occupational health needs of universities: a review with an emphasis on the United Kingdom

This study describes the needs of universities in relation to planning the provision of occupational health services, by detailing their occupational hazards and risks and other relevant factors. The paper presents the results of (1) an enquiry into publicly available data relevant to occupational health in the university sector in the United Kingdom, (2) a literature review on occupational health provision in universities, and (3) selected results from a survey of university occupational health services in the UK. Although the enquiry and survey, but not the literature review, were restricted to the UK, the authors consider that the results are relevant to other countries because of the broad similarities of the university sector between countries. These three approaches showed that the university sector is large, with a notably wide range of occupational hazards, and other significant factors which must be considered in planning occupational health provision for individual universities or for the sector as a whole.     

Promoting the private sector: a review of developing country trends

Two questions are addressed in this article: (i) How can itbe ensured that private sector resources promote national healthgoals? and; (ii) What can be learnt from the private sectorto enhance operations in the public sector? There is a surprisingdegree of private sector activity in both the finai icing andprovision of services, despite the fact that few countries haveadopted wide-reaching privatization programmes. In some countriespressure upon government budgets for health has led to privatesector expansion - in others rapid income growth accompaniedby increased demand for health care is a causal factor. A number of problems related to private for-profit providersare evident; often quoted are supplier-induced demand and excessiveinvestment in high technology equipment, the equity implicationsof private health care, and the availability of manpower forthe public sector. Governments have tried to tackle these problemsthrough a range of innovative interventions, however littleproper evaluation of these policies has been carried out. Whilesuch problems are less likely to arise with the private, not-for-profitsector, the financial sustainability of their activities ismore worrying. There is also a need to define more clearly therelationships between governments and not-for-profit organizations. The paper considers market-oriented reforms in industrializedcountries, and their implications for the health sector in developingcountries. The measures taken in industrialized countries appearto be of limited direct applicability in developing countries,due to factors such as the sparse coverage of health facilitiesin the latter. However the principles on which the reforms arebased are relevant, in particular the need for greater transparencyin the activities of public and private sector providers andin the use of con tracting out services. Finally it is suggestedthat too much research in this area has focused on defendingone or other side of the privatization debate. Not enough workhas considered the health sector as a whole, and the complicatedinteractions between public and private sectors as providers,buyers, financ ing agents and regulators of health care services.     

Policy directions in urban health in developing countries--the slum improvement approach.

The urban development, or housing, sector has a longer experience of addressing the problems of the urban poor in developing countries than the health sector. In recent years the policy of 'slum improvement', which involves both sectors, has attracted the support of international donors. This article documents the development of the slum improvement approach and addresses key issues of the approach which have implications for health planning: covering the poorest dwellers; relocation; land tenure; gentrification; debt burdens and the impact on women. Questions about the approach which still need answering are defined and a summary of the constraints in slum improvement and potential solutions is presented.     

基于内容分析法的部分典型国家卫生规划政策研究

目的：基于内容分析法分析当前世界各国卫生规划关注的热点领域，并通过比较研究揭示其中的共性和差异，为我国的卫生规划提供借鉴。方法：基于WHO Country Planning Cycle Database，筛选时间跨度覆盖2019年及以后且语言为英文的国家卫生政策战略，选取其中15个国家的规划文件，提取相关关键词，运用UCINET 6软件计算点度中心度。结果：各国规划文件的关键词可归为基本理念、体制机制、卫生资源、卫生服务、健康相关因素和效果评估6个分析维度。发达国家卫生规划基本理念维度以及“循证政策制定”、“服务质量”和“可及性”的点度中心度较高；发展中国家卫生规划健康相关因素维度、卫生资源维度关键词点度中心度较高。结论：“健康”和“整合”的理念受到各国关注，评估是较被忽视的环节。发达国家的卫生规划更倾向于对主旨和基本理念的把控，强调基于循证理念的政策制定；发展中国家更注重合作，通过资源合理配置保障服务提供，减轻疾病负担。我国卫生规划兼具发达和发展中国家的特点，后期需重视循证支持，构建更整合的医疗卫生体系，重视规划实施的评估和反馈。     

Health insurance in developing countries: lessons from experience

Many developing countries are currently considering the possibility of introducing compulsory health insurance schemes. One reason is to attract more resources to the health sector. If those who, together with their employers, can pay for their health services and are made to do so by insurance, the limited tax funds can be concentrated on providing services for fewer people and thus improve coverage and raise standards. A second reason is dissatisfaction with existing services in which staff motivation is poor, resources are not used to best advantage and patients are not treated with sufficient courtesy and respect. This article describes the historical experience of the developed countries in introducing and steadily expanding the coverage of health insurance, sets out the consensus which has developed about health insurance (at least in Western European countries) and describes the different forms which health insurance can take. The aim is to bring out the advantages and disadvantages of different approaches from this experience, to set out the options for developing countries and to give warnings about the dangers of some approaches.     

Ends and means in public health policy in developing countries

International discussions of public health policy strategies in developing countries have been characterized by strong and conflicting positions. Differences regarding the means of health sector improvement can often be traced to differences about the ends, that is, the goals of the health sector. Three types of health sector goals are reviewed: health status improvement, equity and poverty alleviation, and individual welfare (utility) improvement. The paper argues that all three must be considered in developing health sector reform strategies in all countries. Highly normative policy positions often can be attributed a unidimensional affiliation with one health sector goal and denial of the relevance of the others. The current global interest in using cost-effectiveness analysis to set national health priorities is assessed in light of this eclectic approach. Examples are provided of how a health sector strategy based on cost-effectiveness would give sub-optimal solutions. These examples include situations where a private health care sector exists and provides some degree of substitution for publicly provided services; significantly high income elasticities exist for health care such that higher income beneficiaries may differentially capture public subsidies; and market failures exist in insurance. It is argued that these conditions are virtually universal in developing countries. Thus, rational policy development should explicitly consider multiple goals for the health sector.