Cytosine deaminase/5-fluorocytosine exposure induces bystander and radiosensitization effects in hypoxic glioblastoma cells in vitro

PURPOSE: Treatment of glioblastoma (GBM) is limited by therapeutic ratio; therefore, successful therapy must be specifically cytotoxic to cancer cells. Hypoxic cells are ubiquitous in GBM, and resistant to radiation and chemotherapy, and, thus, are logical targets for gene therapy. In this study, we investigated whether cytosine deaminase (CD)/5-fluorocytosine (5-FC) enzyme/prodrug treatment induced a bystander effect (BE) and/or radiosensitization in hypoxic GBM cells. METHODS AND MATERIALS: We stably transfected cells with a gene construct consisting of the SV40 minimal promoter, nine copies of a hypoxia-responsive element, and the yeast CD gene. During hypoxia, a hypoxia-responsive element regulates expression of the CD gene and facilitates the conversion of 5-FC to 5-fluorouracil, a highly toxic antimetabolite. We used colony-forming efficiency (CFE) and immunofluorescence assays to assess for BE in co-cultures of CD-expressing clone cells and parent, pNeo- or green fluorescent protein-stably transfected GBM cells. We also investigated the radiosensitivity of CD clone cells treated with 5-FC under hypoxic conditions, and we used flow cytometry to investigate treatment-induced cell cycle changes. RESULTS: Both a large BE and radiosensitization occurred in GBM cells under hypoxic conditions. The magnitude of the BE depended on the number of transfected cells producing CD, the functionality of the CD, the administered concentration of 5-FC, and the sensitivity of cell type to 5-fluorouracil. CONCLUSION: Hypoxia-inducible CD/5-FC therapy in combination with radiation therapy shows both a pronounced BE and a radiosensitizing effect under hypoxic conditions.     

Bystander cytotoxicity in human medullary thyroid carcinoma cells mediated by fusion yeast cytosine deaminase and 5-fluorocytosine

In our work, we have evaluated efficiency of gene-directed enzyme/prodrug therapy (GDEPT) based on combination of fusion yeast cytosine deaminase (yCD) and 5-fluorocytosine (5FC) on model human medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC) cell line TT. We determined the efficiency of this GDEPT approach in suicide and bystander cytotoxicity induction. We have shown significant bystander effect in vitro and 5FC administration resulted in potent antitumor effect in vivo. Furthermore, we have unraveled high efficiency of cell-mediated GDEPT, when human mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) were used as delivery vehicles in direct cocultures in vitro. Nevertheless, effector MSC exhibited inhibitory effect on TT cell proliferation and abrogated TT xenotransplant growth in vivo. We suggest that yCD/5FC combination represents another experimental treatment modality to be tested in MTC and our data further support the exploration of MSC antitumor potential for future use in metastatic MTC therapy.     

慢病毒介导YCD/5-FC自杀基因系统对白血病Jurkat细胞杀伤和旁观者效应

目的:探讨慢病毒介导的酵母菌胞嘧啶脱氨酶(yeast cytosine deaminase,YCD)自杀基因对人白血病Jurkat细胞的杀伤作用和旁观者效应。方法:制备YCD-GFP慢病毒上清,转染Jurkat细胞(即Jurkat/YCD-GFP细胞),流式细胞术检测YCD-GFP基因的表达。体外观察前体药物5-氟胞嘧啶(5-fluorocytosine,5-FC)对Jurkat/YCD-GFP细胞的杀伤情况和旁观者效应;建立Jurkat/YCD-GFP荷瘤小鼠模型,体内观察5-FC对移植瘤细胞的杀伤作用和旁观者效应。以上实验均以Jukut/GFP细胞为对照。结果:成功制备YCD-GFP慢病毒和感染YCD-GFP慢病毒的Jurkat/YCD-GFP细胞,YCD-GFP慢病毒对Jurkat细胞的感染率达96.93%。232μmol/L的5-FC作用72h可使(95.61±2.07)%的Jurkat/YCD-GFP细胞死亡,且上清中5-FC含量下降80%左右。体外实验显示,Jurkat/YCD-GFP和Jurkat细胞效靶比1∶10混合培养[(68.69±4.97)%vs(97.87±1.11)%,P<0.05)]和Transwell1∶25分层培养[(1.46±0.27)×105vs(3.00±0.16)×105,P<0.01]均存在旁观者效应。体内实验显示,YCD/5-FC自杀基因系统对Jurkat/YCD-GFP荷瘤小鼠亦具有较强的杀伤作用和旁观者效应(P<0.05)。结论:慢病毒介导的YCD/5-FC自杀基因系统对人Jurkat白血病细胞具有显著的杀伤作用和旁观者效应。     

Local bystander effect induces dormancy in human medullary thyroid carcinoma model in vivo

The extent of local bystander effect induced by fusion yeast cytosine deaminase::uracil phosphoribosyltransferase (yCD) in combination with 5-fluorocytosine (5FC) was evaluated in xenogeneic model of human medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC). This approach to gene-directed enzyme/prodrug therapy (GDEPT) induces strong bystander cytotoxicity. Effector yCD-TT mixed with target EGFP-TT cells in a ratio 2:9 could achieve significant tumor regression and 14-fold decrease in serum marker calcitonin upon 5FC administration. Histopathological analysis unraveled that antitumor effect resulted in tumor dormancy and proliferation arrest of remaining tumor cell clusters in vivo. yCD/5FC combination represents another GDEPT approach to achieve tumor growth control in MTC.     

细胞之间介质传导的pCEAcd-tk/前药体系的旁观者效应

目的 :探讨融合自杀基因 pCEAcd tk/前药体系的旁观者效应的机理。 方法 :质粒 pCEAcd tk提取后 ,脂质体介导的方法转染到SPCA 1细胞中 ,与未转染的SPCA 1细胞混合 (2∶8)后接种到 96孔培养板中 (每孔 3× 10 3 ) ,加前体药物 5 氟胞嘧啶 [5 Fluorocytesine ,5 FC(5 μmol/L) ]和 [丙氧鸟苷 (Ganciclovir ,GCV(10 μmol/L) ],培养 5天 ,MTT法测定细胞存活率而观察旁观者效应。利用细胞种植密度的稀密和取转导了 pCEAcd tk融合基因的SPCA 1细胞 (处理细胞 )加前体药物的培养液和细胞裂解液对未转染细胞SPCA 1的毒性探讨旁观者效应的传递方式。结果 :融合基因pCEAcd tk/前药体系的旁观者效应在细胞密度较低时更明显 ,处理细胞的细胞培养液具有细胞毒性。结论 :融合自杀基因 pCEAcd tk/前药体系的旁观者效应的传递方式之一是通过细胞之间的某些介质传递。     

含胞嘧啶脱氨酶基因重组腺病毒的构建及其对肺癌抑制作用的研究

目的：构建含胞嘧啶脱氨酶基因（CD基因）重组腺病毒（AdE1CMVCD），并鉴定；用自杀基因治疗系统（AdE1CMVCD/5-FC）对肺癌进行抑瘤作用的实验研究。方法：体外实验：用不同稀释度的AdE1CMVCD)转染人肺癌细胞H460后分别加入不同浓度的5-氟胞嘧啶（5-FC），用MTT法检测OD570nm值，按公式计算细胞生长抑制率；体内实验：建立T739鼠肺腺癌荷瘤模型，瘤体内导入AdE1CMVCD，腹腔注射5-Fc，观察实验组及各对照组瘤体及生存期差异。结果：该系统转染的人肺癌H460细胞生长抑制率随前药5-FC浓度及感染重组病毒剂量的增加而增加，最大抑制率达61.29％，同时观察到了明显的旁杀伤作用；在体内实验中观察到AdE1CMVCD/5-FC对小鼠肺癌有明显的生长抑制作用，明显延长荷瘤小鼠生存期。结论：本文建立的AdE1CMVCD/5-FC系统体内外对肺癌均有明显的抑制作用，为临床肺癌基因治疗的应用奠定了基础。     

mdr1启动子调控CD::UPP基因对紫杉醇耐药卵巢癌细胞的杀伤作用

目的探讨腺病毒介导的mdr1启动子调控胞嘧啶脱氨酶尿嘧啶磷酸核糖转移酶(CDUPP)融合基因联合5-氟胞嘧啶(5-FC)对紫杉醇耐药卵巢癌细胞的特异性杀伤作用.方法扩增、纯化含有mdr1-CDUPP基因的重组腺病毒,转染人卵巢癌紫杉醇耐药细胞株A2780/Taxol和亲本细胞株A2780,RT-PCR检测mdr1和CDUPP基因的表达水平;之后加入5-FC,MTT法检测细胞抑制情况及旁观者效应,并观察腺病毒转染后裸鼠移植瘤的生长情况.结果mdr1和CDUPP基因在A2780/Taxol细胞中可稳定表达,转染后A2780/Taxol组的细胞生长明显低于A2780组;转基因的A2780/Taxol细胞联合5-FC后可通过旁观者效应杀伤周围未转基因的耐药细胞;耐药组移植瘤生长明显受到抑制,肿瘤体积为(569.10±187.93)mm3,对照组肿瘤体积为(2 111.98±230.82)mm3,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.01).结论mdr1启动子可调控CDUPP基因特异性表达并特异性杀伤紫杉醇耐药卵巢癌细胞.     

Adenoviral-mediated transfer of Escherichia coli uracil phosphoribosyltransferase (UPRT) gene to modulate the sensitivity of the human colon cancer cells to 5-fluorouracil

5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) has been used as a chemotherapeutic drug for colorectal cancer. Escherichia coli uracil phosphoribosyltransferase (UPRT), a pyrimidine salvage enzyme, converts 5-FU into 5-fluorouridine monophosphate (5-FUMP) at the initial step of 5-FU activation. We investigated the effects of adenoviral-mediated transfer of the E. coli UPRT gene into human colon cancer cells on 5-FU metabolism and 5-FU chemosensitivity. Three cell lines were used (HT29, KM12 and SW1116). The intracellular levels of 5-fluorodeoxyuridine monophosphate (5-FdUMP) and 5-FU incorporated into RNA after 5-FU treatment in cells infected with adenovirus containing the UPRT gene (AdCA-UPRT) were significantly higher than those of non-infected cells. This was accompanied by marked inhibition of thymidylate synthase (TS) in all cell lines. Furthermore, HT29, KM12 and SW1116 infected with AdCA-UPRT were, respectively, 13.1-, 30.2- and 70.5-fold more sensitive to 5-FU than non-infected cells. Most importantly, treatment with AdCA-UPRT and 5-FU effectively inhibited the growth of HT29-xenografted subcutaneous tumours in nude mice. Therefore, AdCA-UPRT/5-FU treatment had the potential to enhance the actions of 5-FU at both the DNA and RNA levels. Treatment augmented the sensitivity of human colon cancer cells to 5-FU both in vitro and in vivo. We conclude that adenoviral-mediated transfer of the E. coli UPRT gene into colon cancer cells can achieve biochemical modulation of 5-FU and this provides a new approach in the treatment of colorectal cancer.     

Tumoricidal bystander effect in the suicide gene therapy using mesenchymal stem cells does not injure normal brain tissues

In our previous rat study, an established intracranial C6 glioma was successfully treated using intratumoral injection of mesenchymal stem cells transduced with the herpes simplex virus-thymidine kinase gene (MSCtk) and systemic administration of ganciclovir (GCV). In the present study, effect of the "bystander effect" associated with the MSCtk/GCV strategy on the background normal brain tissues was examined in both in vitro and in vivo conditions. Rat MSCtk and C6 glioma cells were mixed and seeded on the rat primary neuron and glia co-culture in the medium containing GCV to generate the bystander effect and the numbers of background cells were counted on day 0, 2 and 7. Though the number of MSCtk and C6 cells decreased rapidly due to the bystander effect, most of the neurons and glias survived on day 7. Next, rats were intracranially injected with the MSCtk and C6 cells and then intraperitoneally administered with GCV for 7days. No remarkable histological abnormality including apoptosis was observed in the background brain tissues near the injection site. The present study has demonstrated that the tumoricidal bystander effect does not injure the background normal brain tissue significantly and that the suicide gene therapies are sufficiently safe.     

慢病毒载体介导的自杀基因系统YCD/5-FC对人急性淋巴细胞白血病Jurkat细胞杀伤效应的研究

背景与目的:酵母菌胞嘧啶脱氨酶(yeast cytosine deaminase,YCD)可将无毒性的抗真菌药5-氟胞嘧啶(5-fluorocytosine,5-FC)转化为细胞毒性产物氟尿嘧啶(5-fluorouracil,5-FU),进而阻抑DNA、RNA和蛋白质合成,引起细胞死亡.本研究中构建含YCD基因的慢病毒载体质粒,体内外观察YCD/5-FC自杀基因系统的杀伤效应.方法:应用亚克隆技术将YCD和绿色荧光蛋白基因(green fluorescence protein,GFP)连接至慢病毒空载体pFUW,构建获得pGC-FU-YCD-GFP.将3质粒系统(含包装质粒、包膜蛋白质粒和转移质粒)脂质体法共转染包装细胞293T,获得的慢病毒转染人Jurkat细胞,流式细胞仪(FACS)和Western blot检测Jurkat/YCD-GFP表达水平;加入前体药物5-FC,观察对靶细胞的杀伤情况和旁观者效应.转基因细胞接种至裸鼠前肢皮下,观察体内肿瘤杀伤情况.结果:慢病毒载体3质粒系统感染293T细胞后,获得的慢病毒滴度为1.2×108TU/mL.该病毒可高效转染人Jurkat细胞,感染率达96.93%,Western blot显示转基因细胞可分泌YCD蛋白.100 μmol/L 5-FC作用96 h可杀伤(89.37±6.57)%的Jurkat/YCD-GFP细胞.混合培养提示存在明显的旁观者效应.转基因细胞可在小鼠体内致瘤,5-FC可明显抑制肿瘤生长.结论:成功构建慢病毒载体pGC-FU-YCD-GFP,YCD/5-FC自杀基凶系统在体内外均有显著的特异性杀伤效应.     

胞嘧啶脱氨酶基因旁观者效应与宿主免疫状态关系

目的 :研究胞嘧啶脱氨酶自杀基因 (E .Coli.cytosingedeaminasegene ,EC CD)旁观者效应与宿主免疫状态的关系。方法 :CT2 6细胞分别接种于Balb/c小鼠及Balb/cnu/nu裸鼠皮下 ,每只动物接种相互分离的两处 ,在其中一处瘤体内接种AdCMVCD ,腹腔给予氟胞嘧啶 (5 fluorocytosine ,5 FC) ,观察肿瘤体积的变化。并用FCM检测肿瘤浸润淋巴细胞CD3、CD4、CD8的表达情况。结果 :Balb/c小鼠中 ,治疗组接种病毒侧瘤体积为 2 4 95 2± 898 6 5mm3 ,其对侧为 2 5 74 8± 339 0 5mm3 ,均明显小于对照组 (P =0 0 0 9,P =0 0 12 )。Balb/cnu/nu裸鼠中 ,治疗组接种病毒侧瘤体积为 2 4 32 6± 36 8 5 3mm3 ,明显小于对照组(P =0 0 15 ) ,而其对侧为 396 0 9± 12 80 76mm3 ,明显大于治疗组接种侧 (P =0 0 4 9) ,但与对照组两侧间均无差异。FCM显示Balb/cnu/nu裸鼠体内肿瘤浸润淋巴细胞主要是CD3+、CD4 +的淋巴细胞 ,而Balb/c小鼠体内肿瘤主要是CD3+、CD8+的淋巴细胞。结论 :EC CD/ 5 FC系统的旁观者效应特别是远距离旁观者效应与宿主免疫状况有关 ,在免疫健全宿主中旁观者效应较强。     

CD与bcl-Xs基因联合转染卵巢癌细胞株对5-氟胞嘧啶作用的影响

目的　了解自杀基因胞嘧啶脱氨酶基因 (cytosinedeaminase ,CD)及其前药 5 氟胞嘧啶 (5 fluorucytosine,5 FC)和bcl Xs基因转移联合作用对卵巢癌细胞株生长的影响。方法　以复制缺陷型腺病毒为载体将CD基因和bcl Xs基因体外转染大鼠卵巢癌细胞株NUTU 19细胞 ,加入含 5 FC的培养基。MTT法检测培养细胞吸光度值 ,计算细胞存活率。结果　单一bcl Xs基因转移及单一CD /5 FC系统作用对NUTU 19细胞的生长抑制作用均随病毒滴度的增加而增大 ;将两者联合作用于NU TU 19细胞 ,其生长抑制率比两者单独使用时的生长抑制率之和更高 ,表现为协同效应 (P <0 .0 0 0 1)。结论　CD /5 FC系统与bcl Xs基因转移联合使用对NUTU 19细胞的生长抑制具有协同作用。     

SCF或(和)GM-CSF体内基因转染对"自杀基因"疗法抗肿瘤作用的增强效应及其相关机理的研究

目的通过增强体内抗原提呈功能提高“自杀基因”疗法疗效，探讨其相关免疫学机理。方法采用腺病毒介导的ＳＣＦ、ＧＭＣＳＦ基因体内转染联合ＣＤ／５ＦＣ“自杀基因”疗法治疗小鼠的ＣＴ２６结肠腺癌，观察肿瘤的生长和荷瘤小鼠的存活期、不同方法所诱导的ＣＴＬ杀伤活性及肿瘤局部的细胞因子表达。结果一次性低剂量腺病毒介导的ｍＧＭＣＳＦ或（和）ｍＳＣＦ基因的体内转染，能增强“自杀基因”疗法的疗效。在肿瘤局部出现新的细胞因子表达，包括ｍＩＬ４、ｍＩＬ２、ｍＩＦＮγ和ｍＴＮＦα。脾细胞对ＣＴ２６细胞的杀伤作用增强。结论ｍＧＭＣＳＦ或（和）ｍＳＣＦ基因的联合转染对“自杀基因”系统的疗效具有明显的增强作用，其与机体特异抗肿瘤免疫功能以及肿瘤局部分泌的细胞因子有关。     

Efficacy of suicide gene therapy in hypoxic rat 9L glioma cells

Viral vector mediated suicide gene therapy (SGT) involving thymidine kinase (TK) or cytosine deaminase (CD) have considerable promise in the treatment of malignant brain tumors. An unresolved issue is to what extent tumor hypoxia influences the outcome of SGT since brain tumors characterized by regions of hypoxia have potentially reduced cellular metabolism and SGT's cytotoxicity is manifest through cellular metabolism. We studied in vitro and in vivo, the effect of hypoxia on the cytotoxicity of SGT in rat 9L glioma cells. Neither acute nor chronic hypoxia affected the cell killing of SGT by TK or CD. In vivo confirmation that SGT efficacy was not adversely affected by tumor hypoxia using the hypoxic cell marker pimonidazole was shown by the absence of a change in tumor hypoxia by SGT. These studies support the use of SGT utilizing either TK or CD gene strategies even when tumors are characterized by a hypoxic microenvironment.     

姜黄素联合顺铂对非小细胞肺癌细胞A549放疗增敏作用的初步研究

目的 探讨姜黄素联合顺铂对非小细胞肺癌细胞A549放射增敏的影响。方法 采用MTT法观察不同浓度姜黄素（10、20、50、100、200 μmol/L）和顺铂（1、2、5、10、20 mg/L）作用24、48及72 h后的细胞存活率,根据实验设计分为单纯照射（R）组、姜黄素+照射（C+R）组、顺铂+照射（P+R）组及姜黄素+顺铂+照射（C+P+R）组,采用克隆形成实验检测4组经不同剂量X线（0、2、4、6、8、10 Gy）照射后的存活分数（SF）并通过单击多靶模型拟合细胞存活曲线计算增敏比（SER）,分别采用人工划痕、Transwell试验及Western blotting检测以上4组处理24 h后的细胞迁移、侵袭及表皮生长因子受体（EGFR）的蛋白水平。结果 随姜黄素（10~200 μmol/L范围内）和顺铂（1~20 mg/L范围内）浓度增加,A549细胞的细胞存活率降低,抑制效应呈浓度和时间依赖方式,差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）;C+P+R组在照射剂量为2~10 Gy时的细胞SF均低于其余3组,而C+R组在4~10 Gy,P+R组在2~10 Gy时的细胞SF均低于R组,差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）,C+R组、P+R组及C+P+R组相对于R组的SER依次为1.24、1.31和1.96;C+P+R组的迁移距离、穿膜细胞数量及EGFR蛋白水平均低于其余3组,而C+R组和P+R组的以上指标亦低于R组,以上差异均有统计学意义（P<0.05）。结论 姜黄素联合顺铂可抑制A549细胞增殖并具有放射增敏作用,同时抑制其迁移和侵袭,可能与EGFR相关信号通路受抑制有关。     

Increased cytotoxicity and bystander effect of 5-fluorouracil and 5-deoxy-5-fluorouridine in human colorectal cancer cells transfected with thymidine phosphorylase.

5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) and 5'-deoxy-5-fluorouridine (5'-DFUR), a prodrug of 5-FU, are anticancer agents activated by thymidine phosphorylase (TP). Transfecting the human TP cDNA into cancer cells in order to sensitize them to these pyrimidine antimetabolites may be an important approach in human cancer gene therapy research. In this study, an expression vector containing the human TP cDNA (pcTP5) was transfected into LS174T human colon carcinoma cells. Eight stable transfectants were randomly selected and analysed. The cytotoxic effects of 5-FU and 5'-DFUR were higher in TP-transfected cells as compared to wild-type cells. The maximal decreases in the IC50 were 80-fold for 5-FU and 40-fold for 5'-DFUR. The increase in sensitivity to these pyrimidines of TP-transfected cells significantly correlated with the increase in both TP activity and TP expression. Transfected clone LS174T-c2 but not wild-type cells exhibited formation of [3H]FdUMP from [3H]5-FU. In addition the LS174T-c2 clone enhanced the cytotoxic effect of 5'-DFUR, but also that of 5-FU, towards co-cultured parental cells. For both anti-cancer agents, this bystander effect did not require cell-cell contact. These results show that both 5-FU or 5'-DFUR could be used together with a TP-suicide vector in cancer gene therapy.     

组织特异性CD/5-FC系统热化疗对裸鼠结肠癌肝转移的疗效

目的：探讨组织特异性胞嘧啶脱氨酶/5氟胞嘧啶（cytisine deaminase/5fluorocytosine,CD/5FC）系统热化疗对结肠癌肝转移裸鼠模型的治疗作用。方法：将含CEA启动子调控CD基因表达的逆转录病毒载体进行扩增、纯化、包装,并收集病毒上清。45只裸鼠经门静脉注射人结肠癌LoVo细胞,成瘤后2 d腹腔注射病毒上清（0.2 ml/次,每天1次,共5 d）。随机分为对照组、常温化疗组和热化疗组,分别经腹腔注射生理盐水、室温前药5FC和43 ℃前药5FC\[均为500 mg/（kg·d）\]进行治疗。治疗21 d后处死裸鼠, 观察肝脏转移率和转移结节数, RTPCR检测CD基因在肿瘤组织的表达,光镜及电镜下观察肿瘤病理学的变化。结果：病毒滴度为5.6×106 CFU/L。CD基因在移植瘤组织中有效表达。热化疗组的肝转移率与转移结节数均低于常温化疗组\[133% vs 40.0%,(0.20±0.56)个vs（0.80±1.01）个;均P<0.05\]。光镜下见对照组肝转移瘤组织细胞生长活跃,热化疗组较化疗组肝转移瘤细胞生长受抑制更明显。电镜下见化疗组、热化疗组肝转移瘤细胞有不同程度的凋亡改变。结论：组织特异性CD/5FC系统热化疗对裸鼠结肠癌肝转移瘤有明显的抑制作用。     

Interaction of misonidazole and oxygen in the radiosensitization of mammalian cells

The radiosensitizing effect of misonidazole in the presence of various oxygen concentrations was studied using cultured Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. Survival curves were measured for cells equilibrated with various combinations of oxygen and misonidazole concentrations and irradiated with 50 kVp x-rays. In cases where the two agents independently yield two moderately different enhancement ratios (ER), the combined ER is simply the higher of the two. Only when the two individual ER's are approximately equal is there some degree of increase in the overall ER. An empirical technique was derived, based on the concept of ER-equivalence and the respective K-curves of the two sensitizers, to predict the combinative effect of the agents in radiosensitization. These experimental and theoretical considerations suggest that oxygen and misonidazole share in the same sensitization mechanism and act on the same target site or sites. Since it is likely that there is a distribution of oxygen tension in a tumor sensitizing tumor cells to varying degrees, knowledge of the additive effects of misonidazole and oxygen in radiosensitization may be valuable in understanding the efficacy of the application of electron affinic drugs to cancer radiotherapy.