硫酸软骨素蛋白聚糖与脊髓损伤轴突再生

脊髓损伤后传导束的纤维不能有效再生是脊髓损伤后修复与功能重建的难点之一，其中屏障之一是神经胶质瘢痕，主要由星形胶质细胞和硫酸软骨素蛋白聚糖（chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans，CSPGs）组成，轴突不能穿过神经胶质而再生，屏障导致营养不良，再生受阻。目前有关胶质瘢痕的形成过程与调控、CSPGs参与胶质瘢痕形成的机制、以及如何有效地控制瘢痕的形成从而促进轴突再生，仍存在许多未知领域。     

硫酸软骨素酶ABC对大鼠脊髓损伤修复的影响

为了探讨硫酸软骨素酶ABC对脊髓损伤后损伤局部瘢痕形成和脊髓传导功能修复的影响,本研究首先制作大鼠脊髓全横断损伤动物模型,并将其分为脊髓损伤组(A组)和脊髓损伤治疗组(B组)。在观察期内对动物的行为学表现进行BBB评分;用免疫荧光组织化学方法观察损伤4周后硫酸软骨素酶ABC对损伤局部的硫酸软骨素蛋白聚糖(CSPGs)的裂解作用;用辣根过氧化物酶(HRP)示踪法观察损伤8周后神经纤维的再生情况。结果显示:A组与B组之间动物的行为学评分B组优于A组,有显著性差异(P<0.01);B组动物脊髓内硫酸软骨素蛋白聚糖阳性物质的表达明显低于A组,具有显著性差异(P<0.05),而硫酸软骨素核心蛋白的表达无显著性差异(P>0.05);HRP示踪法显示B组脊髓损伤头端可见少量HRP标记的神经元胞体和纤维。本研究结果提示硫酸软骨素酶ABC能够裂解CSPGs中的葡胺聚糖链,减少瘢痕,促进损伤的神经纤维再生。     

Chondroitinase对成年大鼠脊髓完全性横断损伤后胶质瘢痕的影响

目的研究Chondroitinase(chABC)对成年大鼠脊髓完全性横断性损伤(spinal cord injury,SCI)后胶质瘢痕及纤维浸润的长期影响。方法 Wistar大鼠24只,在第10胸段脊髓(T10)给予破坏脊膜的完全性横切术,然后随机分为2组,在SCI处分别给予chABC或生理盐水。14周后,脊髓横断从胸9至胸11(10mm组织块)连续切片,首先用Trichrome组织学染色切片确定SCI中心及距中心头侧和尾侧各500μm位置,Trichrome染色和免疫组织化学染色测量损伤脊髓中胶原蛋白浸润的面积,硫酸软骨素蛋白聚糖(CSPGs)的免疫反应强度。免疫荧光共聚焦显微成像检测pCREB(1:25)和GFAP表达,以及测量在SCI处纵向的最短GFAP阴性距离。结果应用chABC治疗可降低脊髓完全性横断后结缔组织的浸润。在SCI处胶原蛋白的纵向最大浸润距离以及在脊髓横断切片上的浸润面积,在chABC组显著减小(p0.05)。在SCI处纵向的最短GFAP平均阴性距离在chABC组中显著低于未治疗组(p0.05),表明更多的剩余正常组织在SCI后得以保留。chABC还能有效地清除轴突再生的抑制因子CSPGs(p0.05)。结论 Chondroitinase通过减少纤维浸润和胶质瘢痕以及清除抑制性细胞外基质分子CSPGs,可为脊髓损伤后神经功能恢复和轴突再生提供有利的局部环境。     

硫酸软骨素酶ABC对大鼠脊髓损伤后硫酸软骨素蛋白多糖与生长相关蛋白43表达的影响

目的:探讨硫酸软骨素酶ABC对严重的大鼠脊髓损伤蛋白多糖及生长相关蛋白43(GAP-43)基因表达的影响。方法:制作大鼠脊髓横断伤模型,分为脊髓损伤组和脊髓损伤治疗组,给于治疗组硫酸软骨素酶ABC鞘内注射,用免疫荧光组织化学观察硫酸软骨素蛋白多糖(CSPGs)的表达,半定量RT-PCR、Western印迹法观察GAP-43 mR- NA及蛋白的表达。结果:治疗组与损伤组比较,CSPGs的表达减少,差异具有显著性,而GAP-43mRNA及蛋白表达增多。结论:硫酸软骨素酶ABC能够裂解CSPGs,改善脊髓损伤区的微环境,促进GAP-43 mRNA及蛋白的表达,是修复脊髓损伤和促进神经再生的机制之一。     

中枢神经损伤后TGF-β1信号通路对神经再生的影响

中枢神经损伤后TGF-β1信号通路被激活,引起损伤周边的瘢痕组织的增生与形成,瘢痕组织包括损伤中心区的纤维瘢痕和损伤周边的胶质瘢痕。虽然在早期对修复血脑屏障起着重要的作用,但后期瘢痕组织的过度增生会产生大量的抑制神经再生的细胞外基质,如硫酸软骨素蛋白糖。因此,在损伤后期抑制TGF-β1信号的持续激活可能促进神经轴突的再生。从TGF-β1信号通路与瘢痕组织形成的相关性研究中枢神经损伤后的神经再生机制具有重要意义。     

电针与骨髓间充质干细胞移植在脊髓损伤修复及再生中的作用

脊髓损伤(spinal cord injury,SCI)后可引起损伤平面以下感觉运动功能丧失,导致患者日常生活不能自理,给家庭和社会带来极大负担.脊髓损伤后的主要病理变化包括大量的神经细胞死亡,轴突退变,弥漫性脱髓鞘,脊髓空洞及胶质瘢痕形成[1],胶质瘢痕在脊髓损伤后形成并逐渐加剧,抑制脊髓损伤的修复[2].这些不可逆的病理过程成为临床治疗脊髓损伤中最棘手的问题.随着干细胞科学的飞速发展,研究发现干细胞移植治疗脊髓损伤具有广阔的应用前景.     

大鼠脊髓胶质瘢痕形成的规律*

背景：脊髓损伤后治疗不理想的原因是脊髓组织的囊变和胶质瘢痕的形成,因此,明确胶质瘢痕的发生发展规律具有重要意义。 目的：观察大鼠脊髓损伤后脊髓胶质瘢痕形成的空间分布、时间规律,以及轴突变化特征。 方法：采用改良Allen重物坠落法建立SD大鼠脊髓损伤模型,分别于损伤后1 d,3 d,5 d,1周,2周,4周,6周,8周,10周,12周取材。以正常饲养的大鼠作对照。 结果与结论：大鼠脊髓损伤后4周开始出现致密瘢痕增生,之后瘢痕厚度平稳下降,至损伤后10周形成光滑的囊腔壁,囊腔内无胶质纤维酸性蛋白阳性星形胶质细胞,损伤区囊腔周围的胶质瘢痕内可见密集肥大的星形胶质细胞,未见神经丝蛋白阳性轴突位于囊腔内。提示脊髓损伤后4周胶质瘢痕厚度达到高峰,囊腔与残存轴突之间开始形成机械屏障,损伤后10周瘢痕厚度趋于稳定。      

siRNA沉默波形蛋白表达抑制大鼠急性脊髓损伤胶质瘢痕的形成

背景:脊髓损伤后胶质瘢痕形成物理屏障抑制轴突跨越损伤部位,被认为是神经修复过程中的不利因素.目的:研究siRNA干扰波形蛋白表达对反应性星形胶质细胞的影响,探讨其在脊髓损伤后胶质瘢痕形成中的意义.方法:①选取生长良好的第3代星形胶质细胞,分为未转染组、siRNA-NC组、siRNA-Vimentin组,利用siRNA干...     

硫酸软骨素蛋白多糖对视皮层γ-氨基丁酸能神经元表达及其抑制性突触传递功能的影响

目的:通过体外观察硫酸软骨素蛋白多糖(CSPGs)对γ-氨基丁酸(GABA)能神经元表达及其抑制性突触传递功能的影响,为探索CSPGs抑制视皮层可塑性的机制提供实验依据。方法:运用硫酸软骨素酶(ChABC)处理体外培养的胎鼠视皮层神经元,降解其CSPGs后应用免疫荧光显色检测CSPGs降解情况及GABA能神经元的表达变化,并用膜片钳检测其自发性微小性抑制性突触后电流(mIPSCs)以观察其抑制性突触传递功能变化情况。结果:0.1 U/ml ChABC处理神经元后,CSPGs被成功降解,GABA能神经元细胞密度、mIPSCs幅度和频率均显著低于正常对照组。结论:CSPGs能促进GABA能神经元表达及其抑制性突触传递功能的成熟,这可能是CSPGs抑制视皮层可塑性的作用机制之一。     

原位胶原凝胶对大鼠脊髓损伤后功能恢复的影响

目的:研究脊髓损伤后原位形成胶原凝胶对神经功能恢复的影响.方法:15只健康雌性SD大鼠随机分为胶原组、对照组和假手术组,Allen撞击法制作脊髓损伤模型.用微量注射器将胶原溶液注入损伤部位,在体温作用下让其原位形成凝胶,对照组注入PBS溶液,每周进行运动评分,6周后取脊髓组织进行免疫荧光染色,观察损伤部位的胶质瘢痕和轴突生长情况.结果:胶原组大鼠第5周起BBB评分显著高于对照组,免疫荧光显示损伤部位胶质瘢痕少于对照组,且长入损伤部位的轴突也多于对照组.结论:原位形成的胶原凝胶能抑制损伤部位胶质瘢痕的形成,并能促进轴突再生长入损伤部位.证明胶原是一种较好的能用于修复脊髓损伤的可注射材料.     

Reparative mechanisms in the cerebellar cortex

In the adult brain, different neuronal populations display different degrees of plasticity. Here, we describe the highly different plastic properties of inferior olivary neurones and Purkinje cells. Olivary neurones show a basal expression of growth-associated proteins, such as GAP-43 and Krox24/EGR-1, and remarkable remodelling capabilities of their terminal arbour. They also regenerate their transected neurites into growth-permissive territories and may reinnervate the lost target. Sprouting and regrowing olivary axons are able to follow specific positional information cues to establish new connections according to the original projection map. In addition, they set a strong cell body reaction to injury, which in specific olivary subsets is regulated by inhibitory target-derived cues. In contrast, Purkinje cells do not have a constitutive level of growth-associated genes, and show little cell body reaction, no axonal regeneration after axotomy, and weak sprouting capabilities. Block of myelin-derived signals allows terminal arbour remodelling, but not regeneration, while selective over-expression of GAP-43 induces axonal sprouting along the axonal surface and at the level of the lesion. We suggest that the high constitutive intrinsic plasticity of the inferior olive neurones allows their terminal arbour to sustain the activity-dependent ongoing competition with the parallel fibres in order to maintain the post-synaptic territory, and possibly underlies mechanisms of learning and memory. Such a plasticity is used also as a reparative mechanism following axotomy. In contrast, in Purkinje cells, poor intrinsic regenerative capabilities and myelin-derived signals stabilise the mature connectivity and prevent axonal regeneration after lesion.     

Testing the role of the cell-surface molecule Thy-1 in regeneration and plasticity of connectivity in the CNS

Thy-1 is a cell-surface signaling molecule of the Ig superfamily implicated in the regulation of neurite outgrowth, synaptic function and plasticity. There is, however, no consensus as to its precise function in the nervous system, and it remains unclear or untested as to what its role is in the development, maintenance and plasticity of neuronal connectivity in the intact brain and whether it is essential for any of the purported functions which have been attributed to it based largely on in vitro bioassays. Here, we have engineered transgenic mice with a targeted deletion of the Thy-1 gene and, after characterizing the development of their corticospinal and thalamocortical pathways, subjected them at adulthood to paradigms of axonal regeneration and plasticity which can be readily induced during development. Quantitative analyses of the brains and spinal cords of adult null mutants showed normal cellular organization, normal anatomical features of the corticospinal and thalamocortical pathways, and basic neurophysiological properties of thalamocortical synaptic transmission which were quantitatively indistinguishable from wild-type mice. Despite the absence of Thy-1, corticospinal axons in adult mutants failed to exhibit overt regeneration following spinal cord lesion; likewise, the terminal arbors of ventrobasal thalamocortical axons also failed to reorganize in adult barrel cortex in response to whisker cautery, although they did so during a developmental critical period identical to that displayed by wild-type mice.Taken together, these results suggest that Thy-1 is not essential for the normal development and maintenance of major axon pathways and functional synaptic connections, nor would it appear to be critically important for inhibiting or promoting axonal growth, regeneration and plasticity in the developing and mature CNS.     

Transcranial direct current stimulation influences the cardiac autonomic nervous control

The myelin-associated protein Nogo-A is a well-known inhibitor for axonal regeneration and compensatory plasticity, yet functions of endogenous Nogo-A in oligodendrocyte differentiation are not as clear. As oligodendrocyte matures, its processes branch and eventually form lamellae that ensheath target axons. The present study examined the effects of decreased levels of Nogo-A on the development of oligodendrocytes. The siRNA mediated Nogo-A silencing in these cells did not change their proliferation rates identified by BrdU incorporation assay and neither the expression of stage specific oligodendrocyte makers as identified by qRT-PCR and immunostaining. But knockdown the expression of Nogo-A significantly enhances the process branching complexity by Sholl analysis. Current results suggest a novel role for Nogo-A in maintaining a restricted branching phenotype in oligodendrocytes process outgrowth, which is a key step towards myelin membrane sheet formation and myelination.     

Protein synthesis in axons and its possible functions

Proteins synthesized in neuronal cell bodies are transported along axons by fast and slow axonal transport. Cytoskeletal proteins and cytosolic proteins that travel by slow axonal transport could take years to reach the terminals of meter-long axons, and it is difficult to see how proteins could last long enough to make this journey. How then are proteins supplied to the distal regions of long axons? Evidence has accumulated indicating that axons contain specific mRNAs and ribosomes and can synthesize cytoskeletal proteins and some other proteins. This review considers the direct evidence that proteins can be synthesized in axons and considers the possible functional significance of axonal protein synthesis. It remains unclear whether local protein synthesis could supply the cytoskeletal proteins and other slow-transported proteins required for the maintenance, plasticity, and regeneration of long axons.     

Axonal regeneration of optic nerve after crush in Nogo66 receptor knockout mice

Mature retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) cannot regenerate injured axons because some neurite growth inhibitors, including the C-terminal of Nogo-A (Nogo66), myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) and Omgp, exert their effects on neuron regeneration through the Nogo receptor (NgR). In this study, the axonal regeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) after optic nerve (ON) crush was investigated both in vivo and in vitro in NgR knockout mice. We used NgR knockout mice as the experimental group, and C57BL/6 mice as the control group. Partial ON injury was induced by using a specially designed ON clip to pinch the ON 1 mm behind the mouse eyeball with 40 g pressure for 9 s. NgR mRNA was studied by in situ hybridization (ISH). NgR protein was studied by Western blot. Growth Associated Protein 43 (GAP-43), a plasticity protein expressed highly during axon regeneration, was studied by immunofluorescence staining on the frozen sections. RGCs were cultured and purified. The axonal growth of RGCs was calculated by a computerized image analyzer. We found that compared with the control group, the GAP-43 expression was significantly higher and the axonal growth was significantly more active at every observation time point in the experimental group. These results indicate that NgR genes play an important role in the axonal regeneration after ON injury, while knockout of NgR is effective for eliminating this inhibition and enhancing axonal regeneration.     

Neuroaxonal Regeneration is More Pronounced in Early Multiple Sclerosis than in Traumatic Brain Injury Lesions

The extent of irreversible neuroaxonal damage is the key determinant of permanent disability in traumatic and inflammatory conditions of the central nervous system (CNS). Structural damage is nevertheless in part compensated by neuroplastic events. However, it is unknown whether the same kinetics and mechanisms of neuroaxonal de‐ and regeneration take place in inflammatory and traumatic conditions. We analyzed neuroaxonal degeneration and plasticity in early multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions and traumatic brain injury (TBI). Neuroaxonal degeneration identified by the presence of SMI31+ chromatolytic neurons and SMI32+ axonal profiles were characteristic features of leukocortical TBI lesions. Axonal transport disturbances as determined by amyloid precursor protein (APP)+ spheroids were present in both TBI and MS lesions to a similar degree. Neurons expressing growth‐associated protein 43 (GAP43) and synaptophysin (Syn) were found under both pathological conditions. However, axonal swellings immunopositive for GAP43 and Syn clearly prevailed in subcortical MS lesions, suggesting a higher regenerative potential in MS. In this context, GAP43+/APP+ axonal spheroid ratios correlated with macrophage infiltration in TBI and MS lesions, supporting the idea that phagocyte activation might promote neuroplastic events. Furthermore, axonal GAP43+ and Syn+ swellings correlated with prolonged survival after TBI, indicating a sustained regenerative response.     

Chondroitin sulphate proteoglycans: preventing plasticity or protecting the CNS?

It is well established that axonal regeneration in the adult CNS is largely unsuccessful. Numerous axon-inhibitory molecules are now known to be present in the injured CNS, and various strategies for overcoming these obstacles and enhancing CNS regeneration have been experimentally developed. Recently, the use of chondroitinase-ABC to treat models of CNS injury in vivo has proven to be highly beneficial towards regenerating axons, by degrading the axon-inhibitory chondroitin sulphate glycosaminoglycan chains found on many proteoglycans in the astroglial scar. This enzyme has now been shown to restore synaptic plasticity in the visual cortex of adult rats by disrupting perineuronal nets, which contain high levels of chondroitin sulphate proteoglycans (CS-PGs) and are expressed postnatally around groups of certain neurons in the normal CNS. The findings suggest exciting prospects for enhancing growth and plasticity in the adult CNS; however, some protective roles of CS-PGs in the CNS have also been demonstrated. Clearly many questions concerning the mechanisms regulating expression of extracellular matrix molecules in CNS pathology remain to be answered.     

Ganglioside 9-O-acetyl GD3 expression is upregulated in the regenerating peripheral nerve

Evidence accumulates suggesting that 9-O-acetylated gangliosides, recognized by a specific monoclonal antibody (Jones monoclonal antibody), are involved in neuronal migration and axonal growth. These molecules are expressed in rodent embryos during the period of axon extension of peripheral nerves and are absent in adulthood. We therefore aimed at verifying if these molecules are re-expressed in adult rats during peripheral nerve regeneration. In this work we studied the time course of ganglioside 9-O-acetyl GD3 expression during regeneration of the crushed sciatic nerve and correlated this expression with the time course of axonal regeneration as visualized by immunohistochemistry for neurofilament 200 in the nerve. We have found that the ganglioside 9-O-acetyl GD3 is re-expressed during the period of regeneration and this expression correlates spatio-temporally with the arrival of axons to the lesion site. Confocal analysis of double and triple labeling experiments allowed the localization of this ganglioside to Schwann cells encircling growing axons in the sciatic nerve. Explant cultures of peripheral nerves also revealed ganglioside expressing reactive Schwann cells migrating from the normal and previously crushed nerve. Ganglioside 9-O-acetyl GD3 is also upregulated in DRG neurons and motoneurons of the ventral horn of spinal cord showing that the reexpression of this molecule is not restricted to Schwann cells. These results suggest that ganglioside 9-O-acetyl GD3 may be involved in the regrowth of sciatic nerve axons after crush being upregulated in both neurons and glia.     

Extensive spontaneous plasticity of corticospinal projections after primate spinal cord injury

Although axonal regeneration after CNS injury is limited, partial injury is frequently accompanied by extensive functional recovery. To investigate mechanisms underlying spontaneous recovery after incomplete spinal cord injury, we administered C7 spinal cord hemisections to adult rhesus monkeys and analyzed behavioral, electrophysiological and anatomical adaptations. We found marked spontaneous plasticity of corticospinal projections, with reconstitution of fully 60% of pre-lesion axon density arising from sprouting of spinal cord midline-crossing axons. This extensive anatomical recovery was associated with improvement in coordinated muscle recruitment, hand function and locomotion. These findings identify what may be the most extensive natural recovery of mammalian axonal projections after nervous system injury observed to date, highlighting an important role for primate models in translational disease research.     

Synaptic and plasticity-associated proteins in anterior frontal cortex in severe mental illness.

Abnormalities of proteins involved in neurotransmission and neural plasticity at synapses are reported in schizophrenia, and may be markers of dysregulated neural connectivity in this illness. Studies of brain development and neural regeneration indicate a dynamic interplay between neural and oligodendroglial mechanisms in regulating synaptic plasticity and axonal sprouting. In the present study, markers of synapses (synaptophysin), plasticity (growth-associated protein-43) and oligodendrocytes (myelin basic protein) were investigated in anterior frontal cortex homogenates from individuals with schizophrenia and depression. Synaptophysin immunoreactivity was reduced in schizophrenics who died of natural causes relative to controls. Myelin basic protein immunoreactivity was decreased in both schizophrenics and depressed individuals who died by suicide. Overall, no changes were observed in growth-associated protein-43 immunoreactivity. However, a slight increase in immunoreactivity in depressed suicides relative to control was observed. These findings support the hypothesis that synaptic abnormalities are a substrate for disordered connectivity in severe mental illness, and suggest that synaptic-oligodendroglial interactions may contribute to the mechanism of dysregulation in certain cases.