腹腔镜下肾癌根治术

目的 探讨经腹入路腹腔镜下肾癌根治术的手术方法。方法 38例肾癌患者施行了手术，患者采用全侧卧位，用3—4个套管针，镜下切开侧腹膜显露肾周筋膜前面，在肾动静脉根部分别用线结扎及钛夹钳夹后切断，低位切断输尿管，沿肾筋膜外完整切除肾脏及肿瘤，清扫肾门旁、腹主动脉及下腔静脉旁淋巴结，小切口取出肾脏。结果 手术时间75～250min，平均110min；出血50～300ml。均未输血。术后恢复良好，疼痛较轻，无明显并发症。结论 经腹入路腹腔镜下肾癌根治术，术中暴露良好，便于肾动静脉处理及淋巴结清扫，肾筋膜外切除肾脏完整取出符合肿瘤治疗原则，可减少种植转移。     

经屈氏韧带改良肾癌根治术

目的 探讨经腹屈氏韧带改良肾癌根治术的治疗效果。方法 回顾性分析自2002年7月～2004年7月，应用经腹切开屈氏韧带方法分别解剖肾动脉、肾静脉并分别一一结扎、切断之，再打开侧腹膜从Gerota筋膜外游离肾脏及肾周脂肪囊、肾、肿瘤、肾蒂淋巴结、肾上腺，并整块切除、清扫的临床资料。结果 本术式42例，除1例因过去行胰、十二指肠手术未能经屈氏韧带分离出肾动静脉术中改传统术式（直接经侧腹膜径路）外均成功98％（41／42）。结论 经屈氏韧带改良肾癌根治术方法简单、有效、安全，符合肿瘤手术的无瘤原则，值得临床推广。     

腹腔镜下上尿路解剖与腹膜后腹腔镜肾癌根治术

目的:分析腹腔镜下上尿路解剖特点与腹膜后腹腔镜肾癌根治术临床效果的关系,并探讨腹膜后腹腔镜肾癌根治术的手术技巧。方法:我院收治63例局限性肾癌患者,其中左侧35例,右侧28例;肿瘤最大径1.5～8.2cm,平均3.6cm;所有患者均根据上尿路解剖特点完成腹膜后腹腔镜肾癌根治术,常规建立腹膜后腔,腹腔镜下在无血管区游离肾脏后内侧,找到输尿管并向上游离肾蒂,Hem-O-lock结扎肾血管并剪断,在肾筋膜前间隙充分游离肾脏。结果:所有手术均获成功,无中转开放手术,术中无明显并发症发生。手术时间35～90min,平均48min;出血20～150ml,平均40ml;术后3～7d出院。62例患者术后随访5～34个月,其中1例出现腹膜后淋巴结转移,余经B超及胸片检查未见局部复发或远处转移。结论:根据腹腔镜下上尿路解剖特点,选择无血管平面入路解剖肾周间隙,并采用相应的手术技巧处理肾蒂行腹膜后腹腔镜肾癌根治术能有效减少术中出血,降低并发症的发生率。     

伴有肾静脉瘤栓的左肾癌全腹腔镜根治术

目的：探讨左肾癌并肾静脉瘤栓患者行经后腹腔途径全腹腔镜左肾痛根治术的可行性。方法：3例左肾癌伴左。肾静脉瘤栓患者均在全麻下行经后腹腔全腹腔镜左肾癌根治术：术中放置4个穿刺套管针,游离腹主动脉和肾动脉后,用Hem—o-lok结扎切断肾动脉,于肾静脉近下腔静脉处用Hem-o-lok结扎切断肾静脉,完整切除。肾脏及瘤栓。结果：3例手术均获得成功,术后恢复良好,5灭出院。病理检查分别诊断为肾透明细胞癌2例,嫌色细胞癌1例。术后随访1～3个月,未见肿瘤复发和转移。结论：对选择性左肾癌并肾静脉瘤栓患者行经后腹腔全腹腔镜左。肾癌根治术完全可行。     

后腹腔镜下肾癌根治术3例报告

目的 报道后腹腔镜行肾癌根治术的体会。方法 2002年10月～2003年1月利用后腹腔镜行肾癌根治术3例。平均年龄69岁，肿瘤平均直径3．5cm，用自制水囊扩张后腹腔后，沿肾周脂肪囊游离肾脏，用直线切割器分别切断肾动脉，肾静脉，遂将肾装入自制的肾袋中，扩大切口至5cm～6cm，将肾取出。结果 3例手术均获成功，平均手术时间3．3h，出血少，均未输血。病理报告透明细胞癌2例，颗粒细胞癌1例。结论 后腹腔镜切除肾癌是一种微创安全的方法。     

经腰部切口锐性分离根治肾癌

目的:探讨改进经腰肾癌根治术的方法,提高手术安全性和手术治愈率。方法:对310例肾癌患者选择经腰入路(11肋、12肋或11肋间)切口,显露肾区后,沿腰方肌外缘纵行切开侧锥筋膜与腰方肌筋膜的延续部,在肾周筋膜外按肾后、上、前顺序,解剖性锐性分离肾周筋膜后间隙和前间隙,分离肾上极,游离肾血管,分别结扎肾动脉和肾静脉,在肾周筋膜外将肾脏及肿瘤完整切除。结果:310例手术经过均顺利。手术时间为60～145min,平均90min;出血量30～300ml,平均50ml。5例出现并发症,其中2例为胸膜损伤,1例为腔静脉损伤出血,2例术后4～6h肾窝慢性出血休克,均经修补和再手术好转;281例(91%)患者得到随访1～36个月,无一例肾窝复发。结论:经腰切口,在肾癌根治术中,按解剖层次锐性分离是一种安全有效的根治术式。     

手辅助腹腔镜胃癌D2根治术中淋巴结清扫模式分析

目的探讨手辅助腹腔镜胃癌D：根治术中的淋巴结清扫模式。方法回顾性分析成都军区总医院全军普通外科中心胃肠外科2010年12月至2012年9月间,采用自行设计的手术操作系统所实施的111例手辅助腹腔镜胃癌D：根治术患者的临床资料。患者均采用自左向右、伴随肿瘤一并完整切除的淋巴结清扫模式（逆向卷席式淋巴结清扫模式）,即手辅助腹腔镜下完成胃近端区域淋巴结清扫后,在预切除线切断胃或食管,将切除组织移出腹腔外,在直视下完成其他区域的淋巴结清扫．完整切除肿瘤组织,最后进行消化道重建。结果全组患者手术切口长度（6．8±0．3）em;术中出血量（238．4＋113．6）ml;手术时间（171．9±23．3）min。手术切缘残端均无癌残留,病理检获淋巴结数（17．2＋5．7）枚／例。术后并发症10例（9．0％）,围手术期死亡1例（0．9％）;术后住院时间（10．1±3．7）d。结论逆向卷席式淋巴结清扫模式可以避免开腹与腹腔镜手术模式的多次转换,有利于手辅助腹腔镜胃癌D：根治术操作流程的标准化。     

不同分级肾静脉瘤栓后腹腔镜左肾癌根治术的可行性

目的：探讨左肾癌伴有不同分级肾静脉瘤栓患者经后腹腔途径腹腔镜左肾癌根治术的可行性。方法：7例左肾占位伴左肾静脉瘤栓患者,增强CT显示7例肿物不均匀强化,并伴有。肾静脉内充盈缺损,均在全麻下行后腹腔镜左肾癌根治术。术中放置4个穿刺套管针,游离腹主动脉和肾动脉后,Hem-o-lok结扎切断。肾动脉,游离肾静脉后判断7例瘤栓均为非附壁瘤栓,上托肾脏,于肾静脉近下腔静脉处Hem—O—lok结扎切断。肾静脉,完整切除肾脏及瘤栓。我们根据左。肾静脉瘤栓长度进行分级,讨论不同分级患者手术难点及可行性。结果：7例手术均获成功,术后恢复良好。病理诊断为肾透明细胞癌6例,嫌色细胞癌1例。术后随访8个月（1～18个月）,未见肿瘤复发和转移。结论：对于选择性病例伴有不同分级的肾静脉瘤栓的左肾癌行经后腹腔途径腹腔镜左肾癌根治术可行,但随瘤栓分级增加手术难度增大。     

经腹腔与腹膜后间隙腹腔镜肾癌根治术肾周筋膜及脂肪切除完整性的比较

目的比较经腹腔和腹膜后间隙途径腹腔镜肾癌根治术切除肾周筋膜及脂肪的完整性。方法前瞻性比较2018年11月～2020年1月腹腔镜手术治疗的57例肾癌的临床资料。肿瘤最大径2.6～18.0(7.4±3.5)cm。肿瘤位于左侧23例,右侧34例。术前临床分期T1～T3a期。腹膜后间隙途径33例,经腹腔途径24例。2组年龄、性别、肿瘤大小和肿瘤位置差异均无统计学意义(P0.05)。术后标本完整性分为0～6分7个等级:0分,肾肿瘤完全破裂,内容物(肿瘤坏死组织或感染脓性分泌物)破溃流入术野,种植复发风险高;1分,肾肿瘤一极肾周筋膜、脂肪囊均打开,肾实质及肿瘤表面均可见,肿瘤包膜不完整或部分破裂;2分,肾肿瘤一极肾周筋膜、脂肪囊均打开,肾实质及肿瘤表面均可见,但肿瘤包膜完整;3分,肾肿瘤一极肾周筋膜打开,脂肪囊完整,肾实质及肿瘤表面均不可见;4分,肾肿瘤另一极肾周筋膜、肾周脂肪囊均打开,肾实质可见,但肿瘤一极肾周筋膜未打开;5分,肾肿瘤另一极肾周筋膜打开,脂肪囊完整切除,肾实质不可见,但肿瘤一极肾周筋膜未打开;6分,肾周筋膜没有打开,完整切除,肾周脂肪囊、肾实质均不可见。比较2组标本评分。结果经腹腔组与经腹膜后间隙组标本完整性0～6分分别为0、0、2、3、8、6、5例和1、1、19、8、2、1、1例,经腹腔组评分明显高于经腹膜后间隙组(Z=-4.907,P=0.000)。57例术后病理诊断均为肾细胞癌。结论经腹腔途径腹腔镜肾癌根治术肾周筋膜及脂肪切除的完整性明显优于经腹膜后间隙途径。     

完整结肠系膜切除在中间入路右半结肠癌D3根治术中的临床应用

目的 探讨完整结肠系膜切除在中间入路右半结肠癌D3根治术中临床应用的可行性和有效性.方法 回顾性分析2010年2月至2012年6月我院胃肠肿瘤外科完整结肠系膜右半结肠癌D3根治术患者42例的临床病理资料,其中开腹手术20例,腹腔镜手术22例.结果 42例患者平均手术时间(146.43±30.73)min(90～240min),术中平均出血量(152.86±38.97)ml(100～300ml),术后平均住院时间(11.5±2.45)d(6～16d),无严重并发症,无住院期间死亡病例.中位淋巴结清扫数17.5枚(12～50枚),淋巴结阳性率11.43%,中位随访时间19个月(1～28个月),肿瘤复发率为2.38%.结论 完整结肠系膜切除在中间入路右半结肠癌D3根治术中的临床应用具有可行性和有效性.     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.