The clinical evaluation of bone tumors

Bone tumors are uncommon clinical entities that are often a source of diagnostic and therapeutic uncertainty. Evaluating these lesions starts with a patient history and physical examination Imaging then begins with radiographs, followed by advanced imaging modalities, such as magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, or bone scan. Biopsy can be performed to establish histologic diagnosis by either closed or open means. Treatment options range from observation to wide resection with reconstruction or amputation. Surveillance schedules vary depending on the type of tumor that is being treated. An algorithm for the evaluation, work-up, and diagnosis of bone tumors is presented.     

Imaging of neuroendocrine tumors

Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) constitute a large group of diverse neoplasms with a wide spectrum of clinical, imaging, and pathologic findings. Imaging diagnosis of NETs can be challenging, and several complementary imaging modalities may be needed during the diagnostic workup. Accurate interpretation of the imaging findings is important to facilitate diagnosis and contribute to patient management. This article discusses the gastrointestinal site-specific features and the tumor-specific features of several NETs and the role of several imaging modalities such as computed tomography, MR imaging, ultrasonography, and positron emission tomography in the evaluation of these NETs.     

Imaging of bone tumors for the musculoskeletal oncologic surgeon

The appropriate diagnosis and treatment of bone tumors requires close collaboration between different medical specialists. Imaging plays a key role throughout the process. Radiographic detection of a bone tumor is usually not challenging. Accurate diagnosis is often possible from physical examination, history, and standard radiographs. The location of the lesion in the bone and the skeleton, its size and margins, the presence and type of periosteal reaction, and any mineralization all help determine diagnosis. Other imaging modalities contribute to the formation of a diagnosis but are more critical for staging, evaluation of response to treatment, surgical planning, and follow-up.When necessary, biopsy is often radioguided, and should be performed in consultation with the surgeon performing the definitive operative procedure. CT is optimal for characterization of the bone involvement and for evaluation of pulmonary metastases. MRI is highly accurate in determining the intraosseous extent of tumor and for assessing soft tissue, joint, and vascular involvement. FDG-PET imaging is becoming increasingly useful for the staging of tumors, assessing response to neoadjuvant treatment, and detecting relapses.Refinement of these and other imaging modalities and the development of new technologies such as image fusion for computer-navigated bone tumor surgery will help surgeons produce a detailed and reliable preoperative plan, especially in challenging sites such as the pelvis and spine.     

脊柱良性骨肿瘤和肿瘤样病变的影像学诊断

评价脊柱良性骨肿瘤及肿瘤样病变的影像表现。材料和方法：回顾性分析30例脊柱良性骨肿瘤和肿瘤样病变,行X光平片,CT或MRI检查,均经穿刺和手术病理证实。结果：发生于颈椎8例,发生于胸椎10例,发生于腰骶椎12例,血管瘤、骨母细胞瘤、巨细胞瘤、内生软骨瘤、嗜酸性肉芽肿和动脉瘤样骨囊肿的影像表现各异,具有特征性。结论：综合平片、CT和MRI分析对脊柱良性病变不难作出诊断。     

Imaging tumors of the patella

Background

Patellar tumors are rare; only a few series have been described in the literature and radiographic diagnosis can be challenging. We reviewed all patellar tumors at one institution and reviewed the literature.

Materials and methods

In an evaluation of the database at one institution from 1916 to 2009, 23,000 bone tumors were found. Of these, 41 involved the patella. All had imaging studies and microscopic diagnostic confirmation. All medical records, imaging studies, and pathology were reviewed.

Results

There were 15 females and 26 males, ranging from 8 to 68 years old (average 30). There were 30 benign tumors; eight giant cell tumors, eight chondroblastomas, seven osteoid osteomas, two aneurysmal bone cysts, two ganglions, one each of chondroma, exostosis, and hemangioma. There were 11 malignant tumors: five hemangioendotheliomas, three metastases, one lymphoma, one plasmacytoma, and one angiosarcoma.

Conclusion

Patellar tumors are rare and usually benign. As the patella is an apophysis, the most frequent lesions are giant cell tumor in the adult and chondroblastoma in children. Osteoid osteomas were frequent in our series and easily diagnosed. Metastases are the most frequent malignant diagnoses in the literature; in our series malignant vascular tumors were more common. These lesions are often easily analyzed on radiographs. CT and MR define better the cortex, soft tissue extension, and fluid levels. This study presents the imaging patterns of the more common patellar tumors in order to help the radiologist when confronted with a lesion in this location.     

骨扫描与肿瘤标志物联检在骨转移诊断中的应用进展

骨骼是晚期恶性肿瘤最常见的扩散转移部位之一.由骨转移引发的骨相关事件可以明显影响晚期肿瘤病人的生活质量和临床转归.骨扫描目前仍然是诊断骨转移的首选检查方法.尽管骨扫描具有高度的敏感性,但其特异性仍较低,如与不同癌症的相关肿瘤标志物联检,可明显提高骨扫描的诊断特异性,还可不同程度地提高其诊断的敏感性和准确性.就骨扫描与肿瘤标志物联检在骨转移诊断中的应用及其潜在的临床价值予以综述.     

Lumbosacral osseous tumors in children

A wide variety of benign and malignant neoplasms in children involve the lumbosacral region. When a solitary lesion of the lower spine occurs, tumors or tumor-like lesions represent an important group of entities for diagnostic consideration. Diagnostic investigation should begin with a patient history, physical examination, laboratory testing, and radiography. Roentgenograms, which demonstrate bone deviations, should be used as an initial examination. The results should direct further imaging studies, such as computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and bone scintigraphy. CT should be the chosen modality for delineating tumoral osteoid matrix formation. MRI shows soft-tissue masses and medullary infiltration better than any other radiological modality. A multimodal radiological approach is helpful in the overall evaluation and differential diagnosis of vertebral lesions in children. Although imaging features, especially of benign lesions, may yield a high percentage of accurate diagnoses, in cases with radiological findings highly suggestive of malignancy, a specific diagnosis cannot always be made, and histopathological findings are essential to achieve the diagnosis that will guide the therapy.     

MR imaging characteristics in primary lymphoma of bone with emphasis on non-aggressive appearance

Purpose To assess the heterogeneity of magnetic resonance (MR) imaging characteristics in primary lymphoma of bone (PLB), in particular the non-aggressive appearance. Subjects and methods In a retrospective study, MR imaging features were analyzed in 29 patients with histologically proven PLB. The following parameters were evaluated: tumor size, bone marrow and extension into soft tissues, signal characteristics of bone marrow and soft-tissue components, including enhancement, and involvement of cortical bone (complete disruption, focal destruction, permeative destruction and cortical thickening). Results PLB presented with extension into the soft tissue in 22 (76%) of 29 patients, was only subtle in three of these 22 patients, and was absent in seven patients. Signal intensity (SI) of the soft-tissue part was most frequently homogeneously isointense with muscle on T1-weighted images (90%) and high on T2-weighted images (91%). Enhancement was predominantly homogeneous and diffuse (82%). In 93% of patients cortical bone appeared abnormal: among those patients complete cortical disruption was seen in 28%, with extension into soft tissues in all but one patient; a permeative pattern of destruction was present in 52% of patients, 66% of these had an associated soft-tissue mass. Two patients with normal-appearing cortical bone had no extension into soft tissues. In two patients focal cortical destruction was noticed; in one patient cortical bone was homogeneously thickened, and in one patient PLB was selectively localized within the cortical bone. SI of the bone marrow tumor component was more frequently heterogeneous (in 54%), compared with the soft-tissue component, being high on T2-weighted images in 89%, intermediate in 7% and low in 4%. Similarly, enhancement was heterogeneous in 59%. Conclusion The MR imaging appearance of PLB is variable. In 31% of PLB patients, the tumor was intra-osseous, with linear cortical signal abnormalities or even normal-appearing or thickened cortical bone without soft-tissue mass, and, as such, PLB may not infrequently look non-aggressive on MR imaging.     

长期血液透析患者骨关节影像表现

目的 分析长期血液透析患者骨关节改变的MRI表现,探讨X线平片、CT及MRI对透析患者相关骨关节病的诊断价值.方法 对32例长期血液透析患者的肩、髋、手腕关节及腰椎进行X线平片、CT检查,其中26例行MR检查.结果 32例患者X线检查见骨质疏松28例,骨吸收11例,囊性骨质破坏6例,骨质硬化11例,关节肿胀1例,软组织内钙化19例;32例患者CT见骨质疏松32例,骨吸收9例,囊性骨质破坏12例,骨质硬化11例,关节肿胀3例,软组织内钙化19例;26例患者MRI见骨质疏松6例,骨吸收2例,囊性骨质破坏14例,骨质硬化5例,关节肿胀15例,软组织内钙化1例.结论 X线平片是观察血液透析患者骨改变的首选诊断手段;MRI是观察血液透析患者关节改变的首选诊断手段;在透析患者相关骨关节病的诊断与鉴别诊断方面,CT和MRI是X线平片重要的补充手段.     

氩氦冷冻消融肿瘤的影像学表现及疗效评估

氩氦冷冻消融肿瘤是一种新兴的治疗技术,超声、CT及磁共振是目前用于冷热消融过程导引和监控的主要设备。因导引方式的不同,冰球的影像学表现亦不同,并是术后疗效评估的主要手段。     

成人髋臼发育不良并发骨囊变的影像学研讨

目的探讨成人髋臼发育不良（acetabulardysplasia,AD）并发骨囊变的临床及影像学表现特点,提高其影像诊断能力。方法回顾性分析66例成人AD的标准双髋关节前后位X线片、28例CT片、10例MRI片的影像学资料,并按有无髋周骨囊变进行分组：囊变组、无囊变组。测量方法有：髋臼指数、Sharp角、CE角、髋臼顶切线角、AHI（股骨头覆盖率）、髋关节内间隙、髋关节上间隙。数据均以平均值±标准差（x±s）方式表示,通过了检验进行统计学处理,以P〈O．05为具有显著性检验。结果66例成人AD中出现并发症的61例,占92．4％,其中髋关节脱位（含半脱位和脱位）49例,占74．2％,继发骨性关节炎18例,占27．3％。髋臼及股骨头囊状改变24例,占36．4％,其中单纯髋臼囊变14例,占21．2％,股骨头和髋臼同时囊变5例,占7．5％,单纯股骨头囊变5例,占7．5％．襞变组和无囊变组对照测量结果显示两组数据除髋臼指数和髋关节内间隙无差异外（P〉O．05）,其余均有显著性差异（P〈O．05）。结论成人髋臼发育不良易并发髋周骨囊变（软骨下假囊肿）,其发病率与年龄呈正相关,X线、CT、MRI检查是诊断成人AD并发髋周骨囊变（软骨下假囊肿）的有效检查手段,MRI在显示成人AD并发髋关节周围骨囊变方面优于x线平片和CT,尤其是早期显示软骨下小囊变。     

跟骨和距骨良性囊样病变影像学表现

目的 评价跟骨或距骨良性囊样病变的影像学表现. 资料与方法 回顾性分析27例经穿刺活检或手术病理证实的跟骨或距骨良性囊样病变的影像学表现.全部病例均行X线平片检查,20例行CT检查,10例行MRI检查. 结果 骨囊肿8例,软骨母细胞瘤8例(合并动脉瘤样骨囊肿4例),邻关节囊肿5例,脂肪瘤3例,骨巨细胞瘤2例,骨纤维结构不良1例.平片及CT显示大小不等囊性低密度病灶;MRI信号表现各具特征. 结论 跟骨或距骨良性囊样病变的影像学表现具有一定特征.     

Imaging of primary malignant bone tumors (nonhematological)

Primary malignant bone tumors are uncommon and are diagnosed typically based on radiographic and microscopic findings combined with clinical and demographic features. CT and MR imaging scans are useful in further staging the tumors by determining intraosseous and extraosseous spread.     

骨外周性原始神经外胚层瘤的影像学表现

目的探讨骨外周性原始神经外胚层瘤(pPNETs)的临床和影像学表现。方法分析10例骨pPNETs的临床和X线、CT及MR影像资料。结果pPNETs多以局部疼痛(9例)伴肿块(7例)为主诉。X线示溶骨性骨质破坏8例，伴有不规则硬化和轻度膨胀的溶骨性骨质破坏1例，未见异常1例；7例见软组织肿块；均未见骨膜反应。7例CT扫描中，边界不清的溶骨性骨质破坏6例。伴有不规则硬化和轻度膨胀的溶骨性骨质破坏1例，均有软组织肿块形成，2例伴有细小的点状钙化，均未见骨膜反应；10例MR扫描中，9例在T1WI呈等信号，1例呈中等偏高信号；在T2WI和短时反转恢复(STIR)序列，8例呈不均匀中、高信号，2例呈均匀高信号；均见明显软组织肿块形成；4个疗程化疗以后，肿瘤有明显缩小。结论骨pPNETs以溶骨性骨质破坏伴明显的软组织肿块、无骨膜反应为主要表现，缺乏特征性，但影像学检查有助于了解病变的范围、治疗措施的制定和治疗效果的评价。     

Imaging in bone sarcomas. The chemotherapist's point of view

The role of imaging in planning oncologic treatment and follow-up of patients with bone sarcomas is discussed in the present article. Tumor staging and radiographic assessment of response to chemotherapy in bone sarcomas may be of difficult interpretation. In particular, the use of the criterion of tumor shrinkage to measure response to chemotherapy is not always applicable in bone tumors where higher calcification rather than reduction in size is frequently observed. New techniques such as (18)F-FDG PET/CT, dynamic contrast-enhanced computed tomography or magnetic resonance are now available allowing a more accurate staging of patients and adding information for the evaluation of tumor response. Innovative approaches aiming to evaluate vascular and metabolic response rather than mono- or bi-dimensional changes may be more informative and require further investigations.     

咽—食管连接肿瘤影像学

咽－食管连接也可称为环咽,食管上括约肌,环后区,咽食管段或食管入口,它是由软骨,肌肉,肌膜和韧带组成,本文简要介绍了咽－食管连接的解剖,生理和影像学检查方法,包括常规X线,X线录像,CT和MRI,对原发于咽－食管连接的肿瘤以及侵犯咽－食管连接的颈段食管癌,下咽癌,喉癌和甲状腺癌的影像学表现作了介绍,咽－食管连接受肿瘤侵犯时,常规X线可发现钡剂通过咽－食管连接受阻,狭窄及黏膜破坏征象,CT和MRI能发现咽－食管连接处椎前软组织增厚,杓－椎间距－寰－椎间距或甲－椎间距增大,杓状软骨破坏等影像学表现。     

Imaging of primary bone tumors in veterinary medicine: Which differences?

Veterinary medicine is most often a mysterious world for the human doctors. However, animals are important for human medicine thanks to the numerous biological similarities.     

恶性脑膜瘤MRI表现与病理对照研究

目的：研究ＭＲＩ诊断恶性脑膜瘤特征性表现的可靠性及限制。材料和方法：回顾性分析５０例恶性脑膜瘤的ＭＲＩ表现，与手术病理相对照，同时随机抽取同期５０例良性脑膜瘤加以比较研究。结果：５０例恶性脑膜瘤中，男女之比为１．５：１；ＭＲＩ显示恶性脑膜瘤多呈不规则形（３５／５０），轮廓常呈分叶状（１５／５０），结节状（１２／５０）和锯齿状（８／５０），包膜常不完整（２８／５０），瘤内信号多不均匀（２１／５０），造影后瘤内不均匀强化多见（２６／４０），脑膜尾征以粗短不规则为特征（９／１３），与良性组比较有统计学意义（ｘ２检验：Ｐ＜０．０５）。病灶部位、大小、边缘及瘤周水肿良、恶性者比较无统计学意义。结论：本组术前定位诊断正确率为１００％，定性诊断正确者仅１例，回顾性分析定性诊断正确率可达８６％。因此提高认识、足够重视，恶性脑膜瘤的术前定性诊断正确率将明显提高。     

Imaging of chronic posttraumatic osteomyelitis

Posttraumatic osteomyelitis is frequently characterized by chronicity and recurrent activation of infection. The diagnosis is usually made on the basis of clinical, laboratory, and imaging examinations. The conventional radiograph is the basic imaging study that provides important information about skeletal deformity, bone quality, identification of metallic implants, and consolidation of the former fracture site. Other imaging techniques are required to determine the grade of activity, to define the extent of infection and to delineate small sequestra, intraosseus fistula and abscesses. A variety of more sophisticated modalities, such as modern cross-sectional imaging and radionuclide studies, are available, and the decision to choose the most suitable method can be very difficult. This review gives an overview of definition, epidemiology, and pathophysiology of chronic posttraumatic osteomyelitis and discusses the value of currently used imaging modalities.     

Imaging differentiation of pathologic fractures caused by primary and secondary bone tumors

Objective

To describe pre-treatment imaging features of pathologic fractures caused by primary bone tumors (PBTs) and metastatic bone tumors (MBTs) and determine if radiographic or cross-sectional features can differentiate the underlying pathologies associated with the fractures.

Methods

Sixty-nine patients with a diagnosis of a pathologic fracture were enrolled. Biopsy established PBT as the cause of the pathologic fracture in 16 (23%) cases and MBT in 53 (77%) cases. The radiographs, computed tomography (CT) scans, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of the subjects were retrospectively reviewed for the presence of multiple imaging features.

Results

Compared to pathologic fractures caused by MBTs, the fractures caused by PBTs demonstrated a higher incidence of lytic bone cortex, mineralization and a soft-tissue mass on radiographs, mineralization and a soft-tissue mass on CT scans, and periosteal abnormality on MRI scans (P < 0.01). These features also exhibited a high negative predictive value in supporting the diagnosis of an underlying PBT over MBT.

Conclusion

Pathologic fractures caused by PBT and MBT may be differentiated by a few specific radiographic and CT imaging features, though MRI was poor for characterization of the underlying lesion. Such knowledge may assist radiologists in raising the possibility of a PBT as the cause of a pathologic fracture.