Neurocognitive Function and Health-Related Quality of Life in Pediatric Korean Survivors of Medulloblastoma

The neurocognitive function and quality of life of 58 Korean survivors of childhood medulloblastoma were assessed after surgery, cranial radiation and chemotherapy. All patients were evaluated with a battery of neurocognitive function tests and the Pediatric Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Brain Tumor Survivors, which consists of self-report questionnaires on quality of life. The mean full-scale intelligence quotient (IQ), verbal IQ, and performance IQ scores were 90.2, 97.1, and 84.16, respectively. The mean memory quotient (MQ) score was 86.78, which was within 1 standard deviation of the average score of 100. Processing speed, attention, and executive function showed mild to moderate deficits. Intelligence, memory, executive function, visuospatial function, and simple motor function were significantly lower in the patients diagnosed before 8 years of age compared with those diagnosed after 8. The cognitive deficits in the patients diagnosed at younger ages might be related to earlier exposure to craniospinal irradiation and chemotherapy. The patient and parent proxy evaluations of attention, fine motor function, and quality of life did not differ. We found significant neurocognitive changes in a wide range of neurocognitive functional domains in Korean survivors of childhood medulloblastoma. Long-term follow-up studies of survivors of childhood medulloblastoma beginning at the time of their first diagnosis are required to better understand the deficits exhibited by survivors of childhood medulloblastoma, so that intervention strategies and treatment refinements that reduce the long-term neurocognitive decline can be developed.     

Motor and perceptual timing deficits among survivors of childhood leukemia

OBJECTIVE: There is growing evidence of cerebellar-frontal system change in children treated for leukemia with chemotherapy alone (Lesnik et al., 1998). METHODS: We compared 22 long-term survivors of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), aged 8-18, to 22 age- and gender-matched controls on tasks emphasizing cerebellar-frontal functioning including judgment of time duration and motor timing. Groups were also compared on a judgment of pitch task, used as a control measure. Children with ALL were at least 5 years from diagnosis, treated with intrathecal chemotherapy (methotrexate in all, hydrocortisone and cytarabine in 20/22), but not radiation therapy, and free from recurrence of disease. RESULTS: After controlling for IQ, the ALL group had poorer performance than controls on judgment of long duration and motor timing, but not judgment of pitch. CONCLUSIONS: Treatment with intrathecal and infusional chemotherapy for childhood ALL may be associated with skill deficits comparable to those seen in individuals with cerebellar-frontal abnormalities.     

成人词汇测验的初步编制

目的：编制成人词汇测验，用于成人言语性学业成就和智能的简易评估。方法：用编制的测验测试450名16-65周岁、按年龄和文化程度分层抽取的成人，进行条目分析、信度和效度检验。结果：大多数条目的难度分布于0.25-0.75、点二例相关和鉴别指数大于0.30、条目偏差绝对值在0.10之内，信度指数多在0.90以上，测验量表分与受教育年限相关0.683，与中国修订韦氏成人智力量表（WAIS-RC）言语智商、操作智商和全量表智商相关系数分别为0.605、0.495、0.591.结论：成人词汇测验条目基本符合要求，分数可靠，有一定的效度。     

Brief report: sluggish cognitive tempo among pediatric survivors of acute lymphoblastic leukemia

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the present study was to assess sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) behavioral symptoms among pediatric survivors of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and to determine the relationship of these behaviors with cognitive late effects. METHODS: ALL survivors (n = 80) and a sibling control group (n = 19) were administered intelligence (IQ) testing, achievement testing and SCT behavioral items. Group differences (patients vs. siblings) were examined on the SCT behaviors and partial correlations were conducted to explore the relationship of the SCT behaviors with IQ and achievement, while controlling for age at treatment and time since treatment. RESULTS: ALL survivors exhibited significantly more SCT symptoms than the sibling control group and increased SCT symptoms were associated with lower IQ and achievement scores. CONCLUSIONS: ALL survivors are vulnerable to SCT symptoms and these behaviors are associated with cognitive late effects. SCT symptoms may represent a behavioral component of cognitive late effects.     

Favorable outcome for infant acute lymphoblastic leukemia after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.

Infants with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) have a poor prognosis when treated with standard chemotherapy. A subset of these infants, particularly those with mixed-lineage leukemia (MLL) rearrangements, has a high likelihood of relapse. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) performed early in first remission may improve outcome. We present the results of 16 patients with infant ALL who were treated with HSCT in first remission. Six patients were < or =6 months of age at diagnosis, 11 had an initial white blood cell count of >50000/microL, and all patients with determinable cytogenetics had a high-risk karyotype [t(4:11) abnormality or other MLL rearrangement]. All patients received 150 cGy of total body irradiation for 8 doses (1200 cGy). Fifteen of 16 patients received etoposide at 1000 mg/m(2) as a continuous infusion over 24 hours and cyclophosphamide at 60 mg/kg/d for 3 days. Eight patients received HSCT from an HLA-identical sibling, and 8, from unrelated cord blood. Twelve (75%) patients remain long-term survivors (median follow-up, 4.7 years). Two patients, 1 of whom had minimal residual disease at HSCT, died after relapse following HSCT. Two patients died of transplant-related causes. The HSCT was well tolerated; 15 patients achieved neutrophil engraftment at a median of 16 days. Acute and chronic graft-versus-host disease were minimal in these patients. These results support the use of HSCT in the treatment of infant ALL, especially when used as consolidation in first remission. The risk of relapse seems to be decreased with this approach. Further work is being performed to determine the long-term effects from this therapy.     

Academic achievement over a decade: A neuropsychological prediction study

The effectiveness of neuropsychological test performance during early elementary school in predicting subsequent academic achievement through high school was evaluated. Previously (Townes, Trupin, Martin, & Goldstein, 1980), a normal, nonreferred sample of kindergarten (N = 230) and second‐grade children (N = 226) had been tested individually using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children and the Reitan‐Indiana Neuropsychological Test Battery. Predictor variables were derived from these neuropsychological and intelligence tests. Ten years later, permission was obtained to examine the school records of 215 of the original subjects and to review standardized achievement tests that had been administered when the subjects were in Grades 3, 4,6, and 9. Criterion variables were derived from students' standardized achievement test scores in reading, mathematics, spelling, written language, and overall achievement Multivariate and univariate regression analyses were performed to determine the relation between the earlier IQ and neuropsychological predictors and academic achievement in several skill domains over the subsequent 10‐year period. In general, the neuropsychological and IQ variables were comparable predictors and in many cases the neuropsychological variables significantly improved the prediction over IQ alone.     

Neuropsychological sequelae of central nervous system prophylaxis in survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia

We assessed neuropsychologically 106 children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) who had all received cranial irradiation for the prevention of central nervous system (CNS) leukemia 1-13 years previously. Children were assessed for adverse late effects of their therapy, using age-appropriate Wechsler measures of overall intellectual ability and supplementary tests. Forty-five siblings near in age to the patients were tested as controls. The patients who had had the most intensive central nervous system (CNS) prophylaxis were found to have a WISC-R Full Scale IQ 17 points lower than the sibling control group. Performance IQ was more affected than verbal IQ. The patients were more easily distracted and less able to concentrate. The severity of the aftereffects was related to younger age at the time of CNS prophylaxis and to a higher dose of cranial irradiation but not to time since CNS prophylaxis. CNS prophylaxis using a combination of cranial irradiation and intrathecal methotrexate has lowered the incidence of CNS relapse in childhood ALL but is associated with considerable long-term morbidity in survivors.     

Unrelated Cord Blood Transplantation for Acute Leukemia Diagnosed in the First Year of Life: Outcomes and Risk Factor Analysis

Infant acute leukemia still has a poor prognosis, and allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is indicated in selected patients. Umbilical cord blood (UCB) is an attractive cell source for this population because of the low risk of chronic graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), the strong graft-versus-leukemia effect, and prompt donor availability. This retrospective, registry-based study reported UCB transplantation (UCBT) outcomes in 252 children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL; n?=?157) or acute myelogenous leukemia (AML; n?=?95) diagnosed before 1 year of age who received a single-unit UCBT after myeloablative conditioning between 1996 and 2012 in European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation centers. Median age at UCBT was 1.1 years, and median follow-up was 42 months. Most patients (57%) received a graft with 1 HLA disparity and were transplanted in first complete remission (CR; 55%). Cumulative incidence function (CIF) of day 100 acute GVHD (grades II to IV) was 40%?±?3% and of 4-year chronic GVHD was 13%?±?2%. CIF of 1-year transplant-related mortality was 23%?±?3% and of 4-year relapse was 27%?±?3%. Leukemia-free-survival (LFS) at 4 years was 50%?±?3%; it was 40% and 66% for those transplanted for ALL and AML, respectively (P?=?.001). LFS was better for patients transplanted in first CR, regardless of diagnosis. In multivariate model, diagnosis of ALL (P?=?.001), advanced disease status at UCBT (<.001), age at diagnosis younger than 3 months (P?=?.012), and date of transplant before 2004 were independently associated with worse LFS. UCBT is a suitable option for patients diagnosed with infant acute leukemia who achieve CR. In this cohort, patients with AML had better survival than those with ALL.     

The Genetic Basis of Academic Achievement on the Queensland Core Skills Test and its Shared Genetic Variance with IQ

First, this study examined genetic and environmental sources of variation in performance on a standardised test of academic achievement, the Queensland Core Skills Test (QCST) (Queensland Studies Authority, 2003a). Second, it assessed the genetic correlation among the QCST score and Verbal and Performance IQ measures using the Multidimensional Aptitude Battery (MAB), [Jackson, D. N. (1984) Multidimensional Aptitude Battery manual. Port Huron, MI:Research Psychologist Press, Inc.]. Participants were 256 monozygotic twin pairs and 326 dizygotic twin pairs aged from 15 to 18 years (mean 17 years ± 0.4 [SD]) when achievement tested, and from 15 to 22 years (mean 16 years ± 0.4 [SD]) when IQ tested. Univariate analysis indicated a heritability for the QCST of 0.72. Adjustment to this estimate due to truncate selection (downward adjustment) and positive phenotypic assortative mating (upward adjustment) suggested a heritability of 0.76 The phenotypic (0.81) and genetic (0.91) correlations between the QCST and Verbal IQ (VIQ) were significantly stronger than the phenotypic (0.57) and genetic (0.64) correlations between the QCST and Performance IQ (PIQ). The findings suggest that individual variation in QCST performance is largely due to genetic factors and that common environmental effects may be substantially accounted for by phenotypic assortative mating. Covariance between academic achievement on the QCST and psychometric IQ (particularly VIQ) is to a large extent due to common genetic influences.     

儿童急性淋巴细胞白血病化疗前后细胞免疫的变化及与人巨细胞病毒感染的关系

目的 探讨儿童急性淋巴细胞白血病(ALL)化疗前后细胞免疫的变化及与人巨细胞病毒(HCMV)感染的关系.方法 103例接受化疗的ALL患儿设为ALL组,34例健康儿童设为对照组,流式细胞术检测对照组、ALL组初治时、化疗结束时、化疗后3个月T细胞亚群.化疗结束时采用PCR检测HCMV病毒,并根据检测结果分为感染组和未感染组,对比分析两组T细胞亚群差异,多因素Logistic回归分析HCMV感染的影响因素.结果 ALL组(初治时)T细胞亚群CD3+、CD4+ 、CD8+、CD4 +/CD8+均低于对照组,差异有统计学意义(P ＜0.05);ALL组化疗前后CD3+、CD4+、CD4+/CD8+表现出先降低后升高的趋势,差异具有统计学意义(P＜0.05);化疗结束时共18例患者HCMV病毒检测为阳性,感染组化疗结束时CD3+、CD4+、CD4+/CD8+低于未感染组,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);多因素Logistic回归分析显示,疾病危险度是ALL患儿HCMV感染的危险因素(AOR=1.543,95％ CI:1.213～1.809,P=0.028),而CD3+、CD4+、CD4+/CD8+、最低PLT是HCMV感染的保护因素.结论 ALL自身以及化疗后细胞免疫功能降低,增加了HCMV感染风险,细胞免疫功能下降与HCMV感染可能互为因果.     

Cognitive status of children treated with central nervous system prophylactic chemotherapy for acute lymphocytic leukemia.

Treatment-related cognitive impairments have been reported for survivors of childhood leukemia following prophylactic central nervous system (CNS) treatment with craniospinal radiation. We examined the neurocognitive status of 46 children with acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) to assess the impact of a regimen consisting of systemic chemotherapy and prophylactic CNS chemotherapy. By comparing three groups of ALL children (i.e., patients whose diagnosis was recent, patients 1 year postdiagnosis currently receiving CNS prophylactic chemotherapy, and off-therapy patients who had been treated with chemotherapy for 3 years) and their healthy siblings on measures of sequential and simultaneous processing, we were able to examine the effects of CNS prophylactic and systemic chemotherapy at various points during treatment. Results indicate that the children who had received a 3-year course of chemotherapy (off-therapy patients) were more impaired on tasks involving right-hemisphere simultaneous processing than were sibling controls or ALL children whose diagnosis was recent and whose treatment had just begun. Age at diagnosis did not interact with the effects of chemotherapy. These findings support the need for continued evaluation of cognitive functioning in ALL, children receiving CNS prophylactic chemotherapy to identify potential harmful neurocognitive sequelae of treatment.     

Sex differences in cognitive processing in children treated with CNS prophylaxis for acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Evaluated cognitive processing in 51 children (27 female, 24 male) who had been treated for acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) with CNS prophylaxis (cranial radiation in combination with intrathecal chemotherapy) and were continuously disease-free for 5 to 12 years. The control group comprised 15 children treated for Wilm's tumor. Functions assessed included visuoperceptual skills, generation of organizational strategies, sensitivity to organizational structure, and attention. The ALL group showed performance deficits relative to the solid tumor controls in appreciating the organization inherent in complex visuospatial material and alertness, with females more severely affected than males. Sex differences favoring males on IQ and academic achievement were related to these cognitive processes.     

Mapping nonverbal IQ in young boys with fragile X syndrome

This study examines the developmental changes in nonverbal intellectual functioning evident in males with fragile X syndrome (FXS) measured by the Leiter International Performance Scales-Revised (Leiter-R). The Leiter-R provides both IQ scores and associated growth scores which permit the examination of both age-based IQ scores and overall intellectual growth. Participants were 45 males with full mutation FXS and ranged in age from 4.0 to 13.8 years. Each child was assessed annually using the Leiter-R as part of a larger longitudinal battery for an average of 3.5 assessments per child and a range of 2-6 assessments, representing a total of 156 assessment occasions. Longitudinal analyzes of Leiter scores consisted primarily of hierarchical linear modeling, with the impact of chronological age, maternal education, fragile X mental retardation 1 protein (FMRP), autistic behaviors also being assessed. Findings revealed a significant linear decline in nonverbal IQ scores, with no effects of maternal education, autistic behaviors, or FMRP on mean level or rate of change in IQ scores over time. The decline slowed significantly around 8 years of age, but scores continued to decline into the 12th year of age. In contrast, a significant linear increase was observed in Leiter-R growth scores, which was negatively influenced by autistic behaviors. The rate of increase did not change over time, and neither mean level nor rate of increase was influenced by maternal education or FMRP levels. These findings suggest that declines in IQ are the result of steady, but suboptimal intellectual growth, rather than a true deterioration in overall intellectual functioning.     

Characterization of t(11;19)(q23;p13.3) by fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis in a pediatric patient with therapy-related acute myelogenous leukemia

This case presents a Caucasian girl diagnosed with early pre-B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia at age 2 years. The only chromosomal anomaly detected in her bone marrow cells at this time was an add(12p). By age 4 years, she had a bone marrow and central nervous system (CNS) relapse of ALL and was treated with chemotherapy that included etoposide. She was in complete remission for 2 years following chemotherapy with etoposide, but later developed therapy-related acute myeloid leukemia (t-AML). At this time, a t(11;19)(q23;p13.3) rearrangement was detected in her bone marrow cells. The AML relapsed again 1 year after allogeneic bone marrow transplant (BMT). The presence of a chromosome 11 abnormality involving band 11q23 in this patient suggests that the transformation from ALL to t-AML was a consequence of etoposide included in her chemotherapy. Studies have shown that the 11q23 breakpoint in the t(11;19) rearrangement is consistent, and involves the MLL gene in t-AML patients. However, the breakpoint in 19p is variable in that it could be located either at 19p13.1 or 19p13.3 and thus could involve either of two genes: ELL (11-19 lysine-rich leukemia gene) on 19p13.1 or ENL (11-19 leukemia gene) on 19p13.3. In this study, the t(11;19)(q23;p13.3) was further characterized and the breakpoint regions were defined by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis.     

Processing speed, working memory, and IQ: a developmental model of cognitive deficits following cranial radiation therapy

IQ decrements following cranial radiation therapy (CRT) for acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) are most apparent years after treatment. The authors examined a developmental model for delayed deficits by evaluating the relationship between processing speed, working memory, and IQ in long-term survivors of childhood ALL (n = 27) compared with demographically matched controls (n = 27). The ALL group treated with CRT showed deficits in IQ, working memory, and processing speed relative to controls. Differences in IQ between the CRT group and controls were mediated by differences in working memory. Processing speed did not fully account for the working memory deficit in the CRT group. Participants with ALL treated only with chemotherapy showed similar working memory and processing speed as matched controls. Data suggest that deficits in processing speed and working memory following CRT may underlie declines in IQ.     

Electrophysiological Signs of Neurocognitive Deficits in Long-Term Leukemia Survivors

The long-term effects of disease and treatment on electrophysiologicalmeasures of neurocognitive function were studied in childrenwho had survived acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) for at least4 years and were currently in remission. We report here changesin cognitive processing time as shown by the latency of theP3 wave of the auditory event-related EEG potential (ERP). P3latency was significantly prolonged in long-term ALL surivors,as well as in patients successfully trreated for solid tumors(ST)outside the CNS who received similar chemotherapy but did notreceive prophylactic treatment to the CNS. P3 latencies werestrongly correlated with measures of school performance andIQ in these individuals. The similarity in P3 latency betweenthe ALL and ST groups suggests that the treatments used on thesepateints produce changes in electrophysiological responses thatare associated with mild, but significant, cognitive deficits.     

Marked clinical difference between two sibs affected with juvenile metachromatic leukodystrophy

In a child with enzymatically and histopathologically proven metachromatic leukodystrophy (MLD), the disease pursued a course typical of juvenile MLD characterized by neurological degeneration beginning at age 9 years and ending in death at age 18. A younger brother of the patient was found to have profound deficiency of arylsulfatase A in leukocytes and to excrete five- to 20-fold greater-than-normal amounts of sulfatide in the urine. He was completely free of symptoms attributable to MLD until age 16 when he developed acute cholecystitis caused by sulfatide accumulation in the gallbladder. Results of detailed neurological examination at age 21 years were normal; formal psychometric assessment showed a full-scale IQ of 105 (Wechsler). Studies on cultured skin fibroblasts from the brother showed defects in arylsulfatase A activity, measured with the use of synthetic and natural substrates, and in radiolabeled sulfatide turnover. Cellulose acetate gel electrophoresis of fibroblast extracts from the patient showed no detectable arylsulfatase A isozyme under conditions that clearly distinguished pseudo-arylsulfatase A deficiency from classical MLD. Biochemically, the patient was indistinguishable from patients with classical MLD; on the other hand, his clinical course is dramatically more benign than that of his sister who was affected with severe MLD.     

儿童青少年智力的双生子研究

目的 应用双生子法探讨遗传和环境因素对儿童青少年智力影响.方法 采用中国修订版-韦氏儿童智力量表评定6～16岁333对双生子的智力特点.应用结构方程模型分析遗传和环境因素对智力的影响.结果 6～16岁儿童青少年的总智商(intelligence quotient,IQ)遗传度为0.43,其中言语智商(verbal intelligence quotient,VIQ)遗传度为0.37,而遗传因素对操作智商(performance intelligence quotient,PIQ)影响甚小.10～16岁的青少年智力遗传度大于6～9岁的儿童(IQ:0.82 vs 0.00,VIQ:0.80 vs 0.00,PIQ:0.51 vs 0.00).男性的言语智商(0.47)受遗传影响大于女性(0.05);而在男性和女性中,操作智商均主要受共享环境的影响.结论 在儿童青少年时期,总智商和言语智商有中度的遗传度,而共享环境因素对操作智商的影响更大;但智商总分及言语智商和操作智商分测试分在年龄较大的青少年的遗传度都明显高于年龄较小的儿童.     

儿童青少年智力的双生子研究

目的 应用双生子法探讨遗传和环境因素对儿童青少年智力影响.方法 采用中国修订版-韦氏儿童智力量表评定6～16岁333对双生子的智力特点.应用结构方程模型分析遗传和环境因素对智力的影响.结果 6～16岁儿童青少年的总智商(intelligence quotient,IQ)遗传度为0.43,其中言语智商(verbal intelligence quotient,VIQ)遗传度为0.37,而遗传因素对操作智商(performance intelligence quotient,PIQ)影响甚小.10～16岁的青少年智力遗传度大于6～9岁的儿童(IQ:0.82 vs 0.00,VIQ:0.80 vs 0.00,PIQ:0.51 vs 0.00).男性的言语智商(0.47)受遗传影响大于女性(0.05);而在男性和女性中,操作智商均主要受共享环境的影响.结论 在儿童青少年时期,总智商和言语智商有中度的遗传度,而共享环境因素对操作智商的影响更大;但智商总分及言语智商和操作智商分测试分在年龄较大的青少年的遗传度都明显高于年龄较小的儿童.     

儿童青少年智力的双生子研究

目的 应用双生子法探讨遗传和环境因素对儿童青少年智力影响.方法 采用中国修订版-韦氏儿童智力量表评定6～16岁333对双生子的智力特点.应用结构方程模型分析遗传和环境因素对智力的影响.结果 6～16岁儿童青少年的总智商(intelligence quotient,IQ)遗传度为0.43,其中言语智商(verbal intelligence quotient,VIQ)遗传度为0.37,而遗传因素对操作智商(performance intelligence quotient,PIQ)影响甚小.10～16岁的青少年智力遗传度大于6～9岁的儿童(IQ:0.82 vs 0.00,VIQ:0.80 vs 0.00,PIQ:0.51 vs 0.00).男性的言语智商(0.47)受遗传影响大于女性(0.05);而在男性和女性中,操作智商均主要受共享环境的影响.结论 在儿童青少年时期,总智商和言语智商有中度的遗传度,而共享环境因素对操作智商的影响更大;但智商总分及言语智商和操作智商分测试分在年龄较大的青少年的遗传度都明显高于年龄较小的儿童.