Sonographic Appearances of Benign and Malignant Male Breast Disease With Mammographic and Pathologic Correlation

Objective. Imaging of the male breast is most often performed for the evaluation of a clinical abnormality such as breast enlargement or tenderness, a palpable mass, nipple skin changes, or nipple discharge. Most breast lesions encountered in men are benign. Malignant breast lesions are less frequent; breast cancer accounts for less than 1% of all male cancers in the United States. The initial imaging evaluation of a finding in the male breast is performed with mammography. Sonography is frequently used as an adjunct to mammography but is less often used as the primary imaging modality. The objective of this article is to provide readers with a thorough review of the sonographic appearances of benign and malignant male breast disease. Methods. We reviewed our institution's case database to identify male patients who underwent mammography, sonography, and subsequent biopsy of a breast lesion. These cases were collected and reviewed to select the best imaging examples. Results. A spectrum of benign and malignant male breast disease is presented with corresponding sonographic, mammographic, and pathologic imaging. For each entity, the salient imaging findings and typical clinical presentation are discussed. Conclusions. Most studies in the literature have reported on the mammographic and sonographic imaging features of primary breast carcinoma in men. However, very little has been reported on the sonographic appearance of benign and malignant male breast conditions. Recognition and correct identification of pathologic male breast entities on sonography is essential to determine appropriate management recommendations and avoid unnecessary biopsies.     

Community‐Based Practice Experience of Unsuspected Breast Magnetic Resonance Imaging Abnormalities Evaluated With Second‐Look Sonography

Objective. The purpose of this study was to assess the utility and efficacy of second‐look breast sonography in the evaluation of abnormalities identified on presurgical breast magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examinations. Methods. A retrospective review was performed of 152 presurgical breast MRI examinations having 196 unsuspected abnormalities to identify findings that underwent subsequent breast sonography. Eligible examinations had a suspicious abnormality identified on presurgical MRI and documentation of the location and size of the finding on MRI and subsequent second‐look sonography. Fourteen examinations not meeting the criteria were excluded, with 182 abnormalities remaining. Patient medical records were reviewed. Results. Seventy percent (128 of 182) of breast MRI lesions were visible at second‐look sonography; 30% (54 of 182) were sonographically occult. Ninety‐five percent (121 of 128) of sonographically visible abnormalities underwent breast biopsy. Pathologic examinations of sampled sonographically visible lesions revealed 39 cancers, 9 high‐risk lesions, 72 benign lesions, and 1 lesion not specified at surgery; 23% (9 of 128) of cancers were in the contralateral breast. Fifty‐four lesions were sonographically occult. Needle biopsy was performed for 93% (50 of 54) of occult lesions, revealing 8 cancers, 1 high‐risk lesion, and 41 benign lesions; 3 of the benign lesions did not have sufficient pathologic specimens but were benign at follow‐up. Magnetic resonance imaging guidance was used in 86% (43 of 50) of these biopsies. One contralateral cancer was identified in the sonographically occult subset. Of the 182 lesions that underwent second‐look sonography, 20% (36 of 182) had a change in management. Conclusions. Second‐look sonography has value in the evaluation of abnormalities found on breast MRI. We found enhancements in 70% (128 of 182), yielding 39 cancers.     

Imaging of fat‐containing lesions of the breast: A pictorial essay

Fat‐containing breast lesions constitute a heterogeneous group of predominantly benign tumors and non‐neoplastic conditions. The role of imaging is to distinguish leave‐me‐alone lesions from rarely occurring malignant fat‐containing tumors that require histologic analysis. Correlating mammographic findings with appearance at ultrasonography often helps in identifying lesions that do not require further work‐up. MRI can be valuable to confirm the presence of fat and characterize lesions indeterminate on conventional imaging. The purpose of this multimodality imaging review is to exemplify the radiologic appearances of common and uncommon fat‐containing breast lesions to facilitate accurate diagnosis, avoid unnecessary interventions, and ensure appropriate management. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Clin Ultrasound 41 :424–433, 2013     

钼靶和MR诊断乳腺纯黏液腺癌

目的 探讨乳腺纯黏液腺癌钼靶及MRI影像学特征。方法 回顾性分析25例经手术病理证实为乳腺纯黏液腺癌患者的资料,11例接受MR检查,17例接受钼靶检查,其中3例同时接受MR及钼靶检查。结果 17例纯黏液腺癌钼靶表现包括：肿块10例,肿块伴微钙化3例,不对称影1例,不对称影伴微钙化2例,钼靶阴性1例。13例以肿块（或伴钙化）为表现的病灶中,6例为高密度,7例为等密度。11例纯黏液腺癌MRI表现包括：9例病灶呈肿块样强化,其中8例呈边缘环形强化,1例早期不均匀强化、晚期均匀强化;2例呈非肿块样强化,均呈段样分布;所有病灶动态增强曲线均为流入型,TIRM及T2-FS序列均为高信号或等高混杂信号。结论 乳腺纯黏液腺癌钼靶多表现为等密度肿块,MRI长TE序列高信号及动态增强序列边缘环形强化较具特征性。     

Prospective evaluation of the value of combined mammographic and sonographic assessment in patients with palpable abnormalities of the breast.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the role of combined mammographic and sonographic imaging in patients with palpable abnormalities of the breast. METHODS: Four hundred eleven consecutive cases of palpable abnormalities of the breast underwent combined mammographic and sonographic evaluation. Patients who did not undergo biopsy had imaging and clinical follow-up; the mean follow-up period was 28.9 months (range, 24-33 months). RESULTS: One hundred sixty-five (40.1%) of 411 palpable abnormalities had a benign assessment; 97 (58.7%) of the 165 benign lesions were visible on both mammography and sonography; 66 (40%) of 165 benign lesions were mammographically occult and identified at sonographic evaluation. In 60 (14.6%) of the 411 cases, imaging evaluation resulted in a suspicious assessment; 49 (81.7%) of the 60 lesions categorized as suspicious underwent biopsy; 14 (28.5%) of 49 lesions were histologically proved to be carcinoma. Nineteen (31.6%) of the 60 lesions categorized as suspicious were mammographically occult and identified only on sonography; 14 (73.7%) of these 19 lesions underwent biopsy; 12 (63.1%) of 19 were benign, and 2 (10.5%) were malignant. One hundred eighty-six (45.2%) of the 411 palpable abnormalities had negative imaging assessment findings; 12 patients with negative imaging findings underwent biopsy, and all had benign findings. The sensitivity (14 of 14) and negative predictive value (186 of 186) for a combined mammographic and sonographic assessment were 100%; the specificity was 80.1% (186 of 232). CONCLUSIONS: Cancer was diagnosed in 14 (3.4%) of 411 women who underwent combined imaging for palpable abnormalities of the breast. Combined mammographic and sonographic assessment was shown to be very helpful in identifying benign as well as malignant lesions causing palpable abnormalities of the breast.     

磁共振成像对形态学表现为良性特征的乳腺恶性肿瘤诊断价值

MRI具有软组织分辨率高、多方位和多参数成像的特点,对乳腺病变诊断的准确性高于X线和超声,使得部分形态学呈良性特征而X线和超声检查定性诊断困难的病变(如囊内乳头状癌、黏液腺癌、髓样癌、化生性癌、恶性叶状肿瘤和恶性淋巴瘤等)于术前可得以明确诊断。     

Breast sonography: technique to mimic mammographic position.

Positional changes in the breast between supine sonography and mammography may cause difficulties in correlating abnormalities. The problem is easily surmounted by performing the breast sonogram with the patient in the upright position. This study is a prospective evaluation of 10 patients examined sonographically in the supine and upright positions. The nipple to lesion distance was measured and the clock position estimated on the upright and supine sonograms. These parameters were compared to the original mammograms. In all patients the mammographic clock position and the distances from the nipple correlated more closely with the upright sonogram. The mammographic clock position was the same on the upright sonogram in six of 10 (60%), and the remaining four (40%) varied from one half to two clock positions. In supine sonography the clock position was the same in two of 10 (20%) patients, and the remaining eight (80%) varied from one to three clock positions. Most lesions were between 4.5 and 11 cm from the nipple on the mammogram. The distances of the lesions from the nipple ranged from 3 to 10 cm on upright sonography and from 0 to 4.5 cm on supine sonography. The difference between clock positions and the distances from the nipple on upright versus supine sonography were statistically significant. Therefore, upright sonography is more accurate in localizing mammographically identified lesions than the standard supine sonographic technique.     

102例乳腺导管原位癌的钼靶和MRI表现分析

目的 探讨钼靶和MR检查对乳腺导管原位癌（DCIS）的诊断价值。方法 收集经手术病理证实为乳腺DCIS的99例患者（102个病灶）,术前均接受钼靶和MR检查。分析钼靶和MRI图像,计算2种检查方法的检出率,分析漏诊原因。结果 102个病灶中,钼靶检出88个,检出率为86.27%（88/102）;MRI检出99个,检出率为97.06%（99/102）;二者联合的检出率为100%。钼靶漏诊的14个病灶中6个为高级别DCIS,4个伴微浸润,MRI漏诊的3个病灶均为非高级别DCIS。结论 在乳腺DCIS的诊断中,虽然钼靶发现钙化有优势,但MRI在诊断高危导管原位癌中具有优势。     

声触诊组织成像量化技术、钼靶X线及两者联合诊断乳腺良恶性病灶

目的 探讨声触诊组织成像量化（VTIQ）技术、钼靶X线及二者联合诊断乳腺良恶性病灶的价值。方法 对99例患者（110个乳腺病灶）行术前VTIQ成像和钼靶X线检查,获得病灶的剪切波速度平均值（SWV_mean）,并进行乳腺影像报告与数据系统（BI-RADS）分类。以病理结果为金标准,分别绘制SWV_mean、钼靶X线及二者联合诊断乳腺病灶良恶性的ROC曲线,评价其诊断效能。比较VTIQ技术、钼靶X线及二者联合诊断乳腺良恶性病灶的AUC的差异。结果 乳腺良性病灶SWV_mean为（3.03±0.78）m/s,恶性为（5.61±2.11）m/s,差异有统计学意义（P<0.001）。SWV_mean诊断乳腺良恶性病灶的截断值为3.93 m/s,钼靶X线为BI-RADS 4B类。VTIQ技术、钼靶X线及二者联合诊断乳腺良恶性病灶的AUC分别为0.870 、0.749 和0.873,VTIQ技术与钼靶X线、二者联合与钼靶X线的AUC差异均有统计学意义（P=0.036、0.015）,二者联合与VTIQ技术AUC差异无统计学意义（P=0.908）。结论 VTIQ技术与钼靶X线联合诊断乳腺良恶性病灶具有较高价值。     

Sonographic Features of Gynecomastia

Objective. The purpose of this study was to identify sonographic features of gynecomastia. Methods. .A retrospective analysis was performed on all male patients with breast symptoms imaged with breast sonography over a 5‐year period. Breast sonograms in 158 men were jointly reviewed by 3 investigators. Sonograms were assessed for the presence or absence of a mass: (1) if mass present, (a) location of the mass, (b) vascularity, (c), axis, (d) appearance of posterior tissues, and (e) tissue echo texture; and (2) if mass absent, anteroposterior (AP) depth at the nipple (increased if >1 cm). Results. Of the 237 men with breast symptoms, 79 with only mammography were excluded. Of the 158 who had sonography with or without mammography, 5 without gynecomastia were also excluded. A total of 153 men included in the study presented with pain (n = 38), a lump (n = 95), both pain and a lump (n = 17), or nipple discharge (n = 3). Nine of 153 with gynecomastia had a biopsy. A total of 219 sonographic examinations were performed, which revealed 73 masses (33%): 20 (27%) nodular, 20 (27%) poorly defined, and 33 (45%) flame shaped. All masses were retroareolar, with 57 (78%) hypoechoic, 54 (73%) avascular, 60 (82%) parallel to the chest wall, and 47 (64%) without posterior enhancement or shadowing. Of the 146 without masses (67%), 141 (97%) had increased AP depth at the nipple. Conclusions. Gynecomastia is a clinical diagnosis, and mammography is the primary imaging modality when indicated. However, if sonography is used when mammography is declined or when mammography is inconclusive, it is important to recognize the various described patterns of gynecomastia to avoid unnecessary biopsy based on sonographic findings.     

Sonography of fat necrosis of the breast: Correlation with mammography and MR imaging

Fat necrosis (FN) of the breast is a benign nonsuppurative inflammatory process of the adipose tissue. The radiologic appearance ranges from benign to suspicious for malignancy; therefore, it is very important to know the distinguishing radiologic features of FN on different modalities. Mammography is more helpful in identifying FN than ultrasonography in most of the cases, and MRI may also be used to rule out malignancy as an adjunct to mammography and sonography. Even when modern diagnostic modalities are used, biopsy may still be unavoidable for some cases. In conclusion, an accurate history and familiarity with the radiologic findings are crucial to recognizing FN and avoiding unnecessary interventions. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Clin Ultrasound 41 :415–423, 2013     

Comparison of ultrasound elastography, mammography, and sonography in the diagnosis of solid breast lesions.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the value of ultrasound elastography (UE) in differentiating benign versus malignant lesions in the breast and compare it with conventional sonography and mammography. METHODS: From September 2004 to May 2005, 296 solid lesions from 232 consecutive patients were diagnosed as benign or malignant by mammography and sonography and further analyzed with UE. The diagnostic results were compared with histopathologic findings. The sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, positive and negative predictive values, and false-positive and -negative rates were calculated for each modality and the combination of UE and sonography. RESULTS: Of 296 lesions, 87 were histologically malignant, and 209 were benign. Ultrasound elastography was the most specific (95.7%) and had the lowest false-positive rate (4.3%) of the 3 modalities. The accuracy (88.2%) and positive predictive value (87.1%) of UE were higher than those of sonography (72.6% and 52.5%, respectively). The sensitivity values, negative predictive values, and false negative rates of the 3 modalities had no differences. A combination of UE and sonography had the best sensitivity (89.7%) and accuracy (93.9%) and the lowest false-negative rate (9.2%). The specificity (95.7%) and positive predictive value (89.7%) of the combination were better, and the false-positive rate (4.3%) of the combination was lower than those of mammography and sonography. CONCLUSIONS: In a clinical trial with Chinese women, UE was superior to sonography and equal or superior to mammography in differentiating benign and malignant lesions in the breast. A combination of UE and sonography had the best results in detecting cancer and potentially could reduce unnecessary biopsy. Ultrasound elastography is a promising technique for evaluating breast lesions.     

MRI在乳头溢液性疾病中的应用

目的 探讨MRI对乳头溢液性疾病的临床应用价值。方法 对78例临床表现为乳头溢液的患者行乳腺MR检查,观察MRI表现,并将MRI诊断与病理检查结果进行对比,计算MRI的检出率及诊断符合率。结果 病理检查证实的78例患者共89个乳头溢液责任病灶中,MRI共检出86个,检出率为96.63%(86/89)。MRI正确诊断82个病灶,误、漏诊7个,诊断符合率为92.13%(82/89)。结论 利用MRI能够敏感地检出乳头溢液性疾病的责任病灶,并做出较为可靠的病因诊断。     

Systematic approach to difficult problems in breast sonography

Although there is an increasing use of more imaging modalities in breast imaging, the role of breast sonography has not diminished--in fact, the applications of sonography have increased with the improvement of high-frequency equipment. Compared with other breast imaging modalities, current sonographic equipment has excellent spatial resolution and outstanding image contrast. Furthermore, sonography does not have the disadvantages of other modalities such as magnetic resonance imaging including exposure to intravenous contrast, higher expense, patient claustrophobia, and potential adverse contrast reaction or renal damage. The primary disadvantage of sonography is that this technique is highly operator dependent, particularly in the breast. However, if one can overcome the barrier of operator dependence, then one potentially may reduce the cost of diagnosis of breast cancers. Although many articles review sonographic appearances of solid neoplastic breast masses, relatively little attention has been directed toward subtle or confusing clinical and sonographic findings of breast cancer. This review defines methods to sonographically approach identifying vague mammographic and subtle magnetic resonance imaging lesions. Furthermore, because sonography is operator dependent, this article also involves discussing some of the pitfalls of breast sonography and how to avoid them.     

Simulation of mammographic breast compression in 3D MR images using ICP-based B-spline deformation for multimodality breast cancer diagnosis

Purpose

   Multimodality mammography using conventional 2D mammography and dynamic contrast-enhanced 3D magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI) is frequently performed for breast cancer detection and diagnosis. Combination of both imaging modalities requires superimposition of corresponding structures in mammograms and MR images. This task is challenging due to large differences in (1) dimensionality and spatial resolution, (2) variations in tissue contrast, as well as (3) differences in breast orientation and deformation during the image acquisition. A new method for multimodality breast image registration was developed and tested.

Methods

   Combined diagnosis of mammograms and MRI datasets was achieved by simulation of mammographic breast compression to overcome large differences in breast deformation. Surface information was extracted from the 3D MR image, and back-projection of the 2D breast contour in the mammogram was done. B-spline-based 3D/3D surface-based registration was then used to approximate mammographic breast compression. This breast deformation simulation was performed on 14 MRI datasets with 19 corresponding mammograms. The results were evaluated by comparison with distances between corresponding structures identified by an expert observer.

Results

   The evaluation revealed an average distance of 6.46 mm between corresponding structures, when an optimized initial alignment between both image datasets is performed. Without the optimization, the accuracy is 9.12 mm.

Conclusion

   A new surface-based method that approximates the mammographic deformation due to breast compression without using a specific complex model needed for finite-element-based methods was developed and tested with favorable results. The simulated compression can serve as foundation for a point-to-line correspondence between 2D mammograms and 3D MR image data.     

乳腺超声与钼靶摄影的比较与联合应用

目的比较乳腺超声、钼靶摄影以及二者结合在乳腺疾病诊断中的准确率。方法对1412例患者1461个乳腺病变（良性491个，恶性970个）根据超声声像图、钼靶摄影表现以及综合二者表现将病变恶性可能性分级，并与病理诊断结果对照。结果超声和钼靶摄影将全部病变分类为可能良性、不能定性、可能恶性者分别为452个、91个、918个和400个、199个、862个，恶性百分比分别为15．7％、25．3％、95．4％和13．3％、55．3％、93．6％。综合二种方法分类为可能良性、不能定性、可能恶性者分别有400个、71个和990个，恶性百分比分别为6．5％、8．5％和94．7％。ROC曲线分析显示综合二者时的ROC曲线下面积大于单独钼靶摄影（0．934对0．889，P〈0．01）。结论乳腺超声和钼靶摄影联合应用可提高对乳腺病变诊断的准确率。     

Static and Dynamic Cumulative Maximum Intensity Display Mode for Subharmonic Breast Imaging

Objective. The purpose of this study was to test the efficacy of static and dynamic cumulative maximum intensity (CMI) subharmonic imaging (SHI) in breast ultrasound studies. Methods. Contrast‐enhanced SHI was performed in 14 women using a modified LOGIQ 9 scanner (GE Healthcare, Milwaukee, WI) transmitting/receiving at 4.4/2.2 MHz. Following mammography, baseline scans of gray scale ultrasound and power Doppler imaging (PDI) were performed. Contrast‐enhanced PDI and gray scale SHI were performed after contrast agent administration. Static CMI‐SHI is a composite image summarizing blood flow over multiple frames using the maximum intensity projection technique. The dynamic CMI‐SHI mode depicts the gradual inflow pattern of the contrast agent in blood vessels. Both CMI‐SHI modes were set up using a new automated sum‐absolute‐difference–based block‐matching algorithm to reduce noise and blurring and compensate for motion artifacts. Evaluation of the imaging modes for detecting breast cancer was done by an experienced radiologist, blinded to histopathologic findings. Sensitivity, specificity, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses were computed and compared for all ultrasound imaging modes and mammography. Results Of the 16 lesions, 4 were malignant. The area under the ROC curve (A_z) for the diagnosis of breast cancer was 0.64 for gray scale and PDI, 0.67 for contrast‐enhanced PDI, 0.76 for mammography, 0.78 for SHI, and 0.75 for static CMI‐SHI. For the dynamic CMI‐SHI mode, the A_z increased to 0.90, and this was significantly better than mammography (P = .03). Conclusions. The new dynamic CMI‐SHI mode produced the highest A_z for the diagnosis of breast cancer compared to conventional techniques and thus appears to improve diagnosis of breast cancer relative to conventional techniques, albeit based on a limited patient population.     

乳腺佩吉特病影像学表现与病理对照

目的 分析乳腺佩吉特病（MPD）钼靶X线乳腺摄影（MTM）及MRI表现,并与病理结果对照。方法 回顾性分析我院经病理证实的22例MPD的MTM及MRI表现,并与病理结果对照。结果 MTM发现22例乳腺实质内异常,14例伴乳头、乳晕区异常。3例单纯MPD均呈粗大钙化,其中2例钙化位于乳头乳晕。8例MPD伴导管原位癌（DCIS）表现为单纯区域性或段样分布的细小多形性、粗糙不均质钙化;9例MPD伴浸润性导管癌（IDC）表现为肿块或局限性致密影伴区域性或线样分布的多形性、粗糙不均质及线样钙化;2例MPD伴微浸润癌表现为肿块或局灶性致密影伴多形性、粗糙不均质的线样或段样钙化。6例接受MR扫描,表现为乳头、乳晕区不对称性异常强化区,时间-信号曲线3例呈速升-平台型、3例呈廓清型;MPD伴DCIS表现为段样分布不均匀强化,MPD伴IDC表现为区域性分布集簇状强化。结论 重视乳头乳晕区观察对正确诊断MPD至关重要;分析MTM钙化形态、分布特征和MRI特点有助于诊断MPD。     

乳腺病变动态增强MRI、乳腺摄影片、超声、病理对照研究

目的比较动态增强MRI、乳腺摄影片、超声对乳腺病变,尤其是乳腺癌的诊断价值。方法对30例乳腺病变的61个病灶的三种影像学检查手段与病理结果相对照,计算每种检查方法的灵敏度、特异度等指标并两两比较。结果超声、乳腺X线摄影、动态增强MRI对61个乳腺病灶的诊断灵敏度、特异度分别为:41.2%、84.6%,35.3%、87.2%,94.1%、94.9%;超声、乳腺X线摄影联合检查的灵敏度、特异度为47.6%、85.4%。动态增强MRI与乳腺摄影诊断正确率的差别有统计学意义(χ2=32.378,P=0.000);乳腺摄影和超声间的差别无统计学意义(χ2=0.569,P=0.451)。结论对乳腺病变的检查,动态增强MRI较X线摄影和超声的诊断效果更好。     

Breast sonography in localizing the cause of nipple discharge: comparison with galactography in 52 patients.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate breast sonography in localizing abnormalities in the discharging duct in patients with spontaneous nipple discharge. METHODS: Fifty-two patients with unilateral bloody or serous nipple discharge and normal findings on palpation and mammography underwent breast sonography before surgical duct excision. The results of sonography were compared with the findings of galactography and histologic examination of the surgical specimen. RESULTS: The final diagnosis was benign in 47 cases (90%) and malignant in 5 cases (10%). Sonography visualized an echogenic intraductal tumor in 36 (69%) of 52 cases, dilated duct(s) without an intraductal tumor in 6 cases (12%), and no abnormality in 10 cases (19%). Eighty percent of papillomatous lesions, 58% of other benign lesions, and 20% of malignant lesions were sonographically positive. The abnormal duct was surgically removed after methylene blue staining in 38 cases, after sonographically guided wire localization in 11 cases, after both wire localization and methylene blue staining in 1 case, and with review of the diagnostic galactographic images in 2 cases. CONCLUSIONS: Sonography was found to be a valuable method for localizing intraductal abnormalities, especially papillomatous lesions, in patients with nipple discharge with no other clinical or radiologic findings. Preoperative sonographically guided wire localization can be used successfully instead of conventional methylene blue staining in cases with problems in cannulation of the discharging duct. Galactography remains the primary diagnostic method, especially in depicting malignant causes of nipple discharge, which may be seen only as duct dilatation on sonography.