Prolonged Second Stage of Labor and Risk of Adverse Maternal and Perinatal Outcomes: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACT: Background: Safe and effective management of the second stage of labor presents a clinical challenge for laboring women and practitioners of obstetric care. This systematic review was conducted to evaluate evidence for the influence of prolonged second stage of labor on the risk of selected adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes. Methods: Articles were searched using PubMed, Cochrane Library, and CINAHL from 1980 until 2005. Studies were included according to 3 criteria: if they reported duration of the second stage of labor, if they reported maternal and/or neonatal outcomes in relation to prolonged second stage, and if they reported original research. Results: Our systematic review found evidence of a strong association between prolonged second stage and operative delivery. Although significant associations with maternal outcomes such as postpartum hemorrhage, infection, and severe obstetric lacerations were reported, inherent limitations in methodology were evident in the studies. Recurrent limitations included oversimplified categorization of second stage, inconsistency in study population characteristics, and lack of control of confounding factors. No associations between prolonged second stage and adverse neonatal outcomes were reported. Conclusions: The primary findings of our review indicated that most of the studies are flawed and do not answer the important questions for maternity caregivers to safely manage prolonged second stage. Meanwhile, approaches for promoting a normal second stage of labor are available to caregivers, such as maternal positioning and pain relief measures and also promoting effective pushing technique. (BIRTH 33:4 December 2006)     

Afterpains: A Comparison Between Active and Expectant Management of the Third Stage of Labor

Abstract: Background: Management of the third stage of labor, the period following the birth of the infant until delivery of the placenta, is crucial. Active management using synthetic oxytocin has been advocated to decrease blood loss. It has been suggested, but not studied, that oxytocin may increase afterpains. The aim of this study was to compare women’s experience of pain intensity when the third stage of labor was managed actively and expectantly and their experience of afterpains. Methods: A single‐blind, randomized, controlled trial was performed at two delivery units in Sweden in a population of healthy women with normal, singleton pregnancies, gestational age of 34 to 43 weeks, cephalic presentation, and expected vaginal delivery. Women (n = 1,802) were randomly allocated to either active management or expectant management of the third stage of labor. Afterpains were assessed by Visual Analog Scale (VAS) and the Pain‐o‐Meter (POM‐WDS) 2 hours after delivery of the placenta and the day after childbirth. Results: At 2 hours after childbirth, women in the actively managed group had lower VAS pain scores than expectantly managed women (p = 0.014). Afterpains were scored as more intense the day after, compared with 2 hours after, childbirth in both groups. Multiparas scored more intense afterpains, compared with primiparas, irrespective of management (p < 0.001). Conclusions: Active management of the third stage of labor does not provoke more intense afterpains than expectant management. (BIRTH 38:4 December 2011)     

Use of Hyaluronidase to Prevent Perineal Trauma During Spontaneous Births: A Randomized,Placebo‐Controlled,Double‐blind,Clinical Trial

Introduction: The purpose of this study was to compare the frequency and severity of perineal trauma during spontaneous birth with or without perineal injections of hyaluronidase (HAase). Methods: A randomized, placebo‐controlled, double‐blind clinical trial was conducted in a midwife‐led, in‐hospital birth center in São Paulo, Brazil. Primiparous women (N = 160) were randomly assigned to an experimental (n = 80) or control (n = 80) group. During the second stage of labor, women in the experimental group received an injection of 20.000 turbidity‐reducing units of HAase in the posterior region of the perineum, and those in the control group received a placebo injection. The assessment of perineal outcome was performed by 2 independent nurse‐midwives. A 1‐tailed Fisher exact test was performed, and a P value < .025 was considered statistically significant. Results: Perineal integrity occurred in 34.2% of the experimental group and in 32.5% of the control group, which was not a statistically significant difference (P= .477). First‐degree laceration was the most common trauma in the posterior region of the perineum in women in both groups (experimental = 56%, control = 42.6%). Severe perineal trauma occurred in 28.9% of the experimental group and 38.8% of the control group, which also was not a statistically significant difference (P= .131). The depth of second‐degree perineal lacerations in the experimental and control groups, measured by the Peri‐Rule, was 1.9 cm and 2.3 cm, respectively. An episiotomy was performed in 11 women (experimental group = 3, control group = 8), and 4 (all in control group) had third‐degree lacerations. Discussion: The use of injectable HAase did not increase the proportion of intact perineum and did not reduce the proportion of severe perineal trauma in our sample.     

第三产程产后出血防治措施的分析

目的 :探讨第三产程产后出血的防治措施。方法 :前瞻性观察我院住院分娩的产妇 45 0例 ,其中阴道分娩30 0例 ,随机分为 5组。A组 :缩宫素组 (6 0例 ) ,于胎儿娩出后静脉推注生理盐水 2 0ml加缩宫素 2 0U ;B组 :卡前列甲酯组 (6 0例 ) ,于胎儿娩出后将卡前列甲酯 1mg塞肛 ;C组 :手法按摩组 (6 0例 ) ,胎儿娩出后手法持续宫底按摩≥ 5分钟 ,适度牵拉脐带 ;D组 :缩宫素加手法按摩组 (6 0例 ) ;对照组 (6 0例 ) :于胎儿娩出后静脉滴注生理盐水 5 0 0ml。另 15 0例剖宫产分娩者 ,随机分为 3组 ,A组 :缩宫素组 (5 0例 ) ;B组 :手法组 (5 0例 ) ;C组 :缩宫素加手法组 (5 0例 )。准确测量产后 2小时及 2 4小时出血量 ,记录第三产程时间。结果 :阴道分娩各组中 ,D组的第三产程时间最短 ,产后 2小时内出血量最少 ,C组、B组、A组依次减少 ;剖宫产各组中 ,C组的产后出血量及产后出血发生率与A组、B组相比 ,差异有显著性 ;剖宫产组产后出血量与阴道分娩组比较 ,其差异也有统计学意义。结论 :胎儿娩出后及时使用缩宫素或卡前列甲酯等促宫缩药 ,并采取主动手法辅助娩出胎盘 ,可减少产后出血 ,其预防产后出血的效果显著优于上述其他处理方法。     

Effects of Pushing Techniques in Birth on Mother and Fetus: A Randomized Study

ABSTRACT: Background: The Valsalva pushing technique is used routinely in the second stage of labor in many countries, and it is accepted as standard obstetric management in Turkey. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of pushing techniques on mother and fetus in birth in this setting. Methods: This randomized study was conducted between July 2003 and June 2004 in Bakirkoy Maternity and Children’s Teaching Hospital in Istanbul, Turkey. One hundred low‐risk primiparas between 38 and 42 weeks’ gestation, who expected a spontaneous vaginal delivery, were randomized to either a spontaneous pushing group or a Valsalva‐type pushing group. Spontaneous pushing women were informed during the first stage of labor about spontaneous pushing technique (open glottis pushing while breathing out) and were supported in pushing spontaneously in the second stage of labor. Similarly, Valsalva pushing women were informed during the first stage of labor about the Valsalva pushing technique (closed glottis pushing while holding their breath) and were supported in using Valsalva pushing in the second stage of labor. Perineal tears, postpartum hemorrhage, and hemoglobin levels were evaluated in mothers; and umbilical artery pH, Po₂ (mmHg), and Pco₂ (mmHg) levels and Apgar scores at 1 and 5 minutes were evaluated in newborns in both groups. Results: No significant differences were found between the two groups in their demographics, incidence of nonreassuring fetal surveillance patterns, or use of oxytocin. The second stage of labor and duration of the expulsion phase were significantly longer with Valsalva‐type pushing. Differences in the incidence of episiotomy, perineal tears, or postpartum hemorrhage were not significant between the groups. The baby fared better with spontaneous pushing, with higher 1‐ and 5‐minute Apgar scores, and higher umbilical cord pH and Po₂ levels. After the birth, women expressed greater satisfaction with spontaneous pushing. Conclusions: Educating women about the spontaneous pushing technique in the first stage of labor and providing support for spontaneous pushing in the second stage result in a shorter second stage without interventions and in improved newborn outcomes. Women also stated that they pushed more effectively with the spontaneous pushing technique. (BIRTH 35:1 March 2008)     

Primary Prevention of Urinary Incontinence: A Case Study of Prenatal and Intrapartum Interventions

A wealth of information is available regarding the diagnosis and treatment of urinary incontinence. However, there is a dearth of quality information and clinical practice guidelines regarding the primary prevention of urinary incontinence. Given the high prevalence of this concern and the often cited correlation between pregnancy, childbirth, and urinary incontinence, women's health care providers should be aware of risk factors and primary prevention strategies for stress urinary incontinence (SUI) in order to reduce associated physical and emotional suffering. This case report describes several common risk factors for SUI and missed opportunities for primary prevention of postpartum urinary incontinence. The most effective methods for preventing urinary incontinence include correct teaching of pelvic floor muscle training (PFMT; specifically Kegel exercises), moderate combined physical exercise regimens, counseling and support for weight loss, counseling against smoking, appropriate treatment for asthma and constipation, and appropriate labor management to prevent pelvic organ prolapse, urethral injury, and pelvic floor muscle damage.