DNA修复蛋白RAD52在同源重组中的作用及其在肿瘤中的研究进展

DNA损伤修复在维持细胞基因组稳定性和机体存活中发挥重要作用。DNA双链断裂（Double strandbreaks,DSBs）是DNA损伤最严重的形式。同源重组修复（homologous recombination repair，HRR）是体内参与DSBs损伤修复的重要机制之一，其中DNA修复蛋白RAD52是体内参与同源重组DNA修复的关键因子。RAD52的表达水平异常与非小细胞肺癌、胃癌、鼻咽癌、乳腺癌等肿瘤的发生、发展相关。本文对DNA修复蛋白RAD52在肿瘤研究中的应用这一热点问题进行综述。     

DNA双链断裂修复通路和卵巢癌的关系

卵巢癌发生发展与DNA损伤累积引起的基因不稳定性和细胞行为异常密切相关。DNA双链断裂修复通路中最为重要的是同源重组和非同源末端连接机制以及最近发现的微同源介导的末端修复形式,能够快速准确地修复DNA双链断裂,对维持基因组稳定性起着至关重要的作用,对卵巢癌的基因诊断、基因治疗以及卵巢癌分子水平研究均有重要意义。     

以DNA双链断裂修复基因为靶点的肿瘤放射增敏研究

双链断裂是放射线引起的细胞致死性DNA损伤.细胞DNA双链断裂主要由同源重组和非同源末端连接两个分子途径进行修复.通过RNA干扰、反义核苷酸等技术调控DNA双链断裂修复相关基因的表达和功能,是提高肿瘤放疗疗效的重要途径.     

Rad51C 在DNA 损伤修复中的研究进展*

细胞毒性物质及电离辐射等易致细胞DNA 损伤,真核生物中DNA 双链断裂（double strand breaks,DSBs）修复的主要通路是同源重组（homologous recombination,HR）。 Rad51C 蛋白作为HR通路的关键因子,其表达异常可致DNA 损伤修复的失调,引起基因组的不稳定,最终导致肿瘤的发生发展。近年来随着对Rad51C 基因的研究,发现Rad51C 可能会成为恶性肿瘤治疗的潜在靶点。本文就Rad51C 在DNA 损伤修复及放疗中作用的研究进展进行综述。      

同源重组与肿瘤发生

同源重组是真核细胞修复DNA双链断裂损伤的一种重要途径,同源重组相关基因的突变导致基因组不稳定,增加肿瘤的发生率.近年来对同源重组的分子机制、参与的基因及其功能有了较为全面的认识,发现同源重组修复在肿瘤发生中发挥着重要作用.     

同源重组与肿瘤发生

同源重组是真核细胞修复DNA双链断裂损伤的一种重要途径，同源重组相关基因的突变导致基因组不稳定，增加肿瘤的发生率。近年来对同源重组的分子机制、参与的基因及其功能有了较为全面的认识，发现同源重组修复在肿瘤发生中发挥着重要作用。     

DNA依赖性蛋白激酶催化亚基在非同源末端连接修复中作用的研究进展

DNA的精确复制对维持基因组稳定性具有重要作用,而DNA双链断裂(DSB)损伤可能诱导细胞凋亡和染色质重排,在肿瘤的发生发展过程中发挥作用。DNA依赖性蛋白激酶催化亚基(DNA-PKcs)是磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶样蛋白激酶(PIKK)家族中相对分子质量最大及表达量最高的丝氨酸/苏氨酸蛋白激酶。与Ku70/80结合后,DNA-PKcs在离子辐射诱导DSB后的非同源末端连接(NHEJ)有效修复过程中,发挥非常重要的作用。DNA-PKcs或其他NHEJ修复因子的缺失会导致辐射敏感性和DSB的未修复,以及V(D)J重组缺陷和免疫缺陷。本文主要对DNA-PKcs的结构,在DSB位点的募集与激活,在NHEJ修复中的作用过程及其与疾病的关系进行总结与展望,希望能为DNA-PKcs的深入研究及临床应用提供理论基础。     

RNA干扰抑制RAD51基因表达对放射敏感性影响的实验研究

目的:构建针对DNA双链断裂修复基因RAD51的siRNA表达质粒,观察对肝癌细胞株HepG-2放射敏感性的影响。方法:采用基因重组技术,构建针对RAD51基因的干扰质粒pSilencer-1、pSilencer-2、pSilencer-3及对照质粒pSilencer-C,经脂质体转染HepG-2细胞,200μg／mL潮霉素筛选稳定表达的细胞,用Western blot测定RAD51蛋白表达量的改变,用细胞克隆形成实验测定细胞放射敏感性。结果:筛选出稳定转染各组质粒的细胞;转染pSilencer -1、pSilencer-2和pSilencer-3质粒细胞克隆的RAD51蛋白表达量分别为转染pSilencer-C细胞克隆的0．60±0．29、0．36±0．16和0．15±0．09,t值分别为4．101、6．561和8．714,P值分别为0．049、0．003和0．001。pSilencer-C组、pSilencer-2组和pSilencer-3组三组剂量存活曲线的D0值分别为1．55、1．46和1．44,Dq值分别为3．31、3．16和2．82,SF2分别为0．82、0．73和0．67 Gy;与pSilencer-C组相比,pSilencer-2组和pSilencer-3组在2 Gy剂量时的放射增敏比SERSF2分别为1．12和1．23。结论:RNAi抑制RAD51基因的表达,能提高HepG-2细胞的放射敏感性,提示RAD51基因可作为放射增敏治疗的一个潜在靶点。     

ＤＮＡ双链断裂修复通路与遗传性乳腺癌的关系

遗传性乳腺癌具有家族聚集、早发、双侧等特点,多为易感基因发生胚系突变所致。ＤＮＡ损伤修复是哺乳动物细胞保证遗传物质稳定性的重要机制。双链断裂是最严重的ＤＮＡ损伤之一,修复过程涉及同源重组和非同源末端连接通路。ＤＮＡ双链断裂修复或信号传导相关基因或蛋白功能缺陷可以诱导染色体不稳定而增加乳腺癌的易感性。与ＤＮＡ修复功能相关的链交联剂和ＰＡＲＰ-１抑制剂为ＢＲＣＡ相关遗传性乳腺癌的治疗提供了新的途径。本文就ＤＮＡ双链断裂修复通路相关基因的突变与遗传性乳腺癌发病的关系作一综述。     

甲基丙烯酸环氧丙酯致人支气管上皮细胞恶性转化相关DNA修复基因表达改变的研究

目的：检测甲基丙烯酸环氧丙酯（glycidyl methacrylate,GMA）致人支气管上皮细胞（16HBE）恶性转化相关DNA修复基因表达改变的情况,以探讨GMA致细胞癌变的机制。方法：采用＂基因组稳定和DNA修复基因芯片＂分析检测GMA诱导16HBE细胞恶性转化过程中,经鉴定具备恶性细胞表型特征的第30代转化细胞DNA修复基因表达的改变。结果：GMA转化第30代细胞与同代龄对照细胞比较,在113个基因中有8个基因的表达有显著差异,其中7个基因表达上调（ratio〉2）,分别是NBN、RAD50、RAD51、OGG1、XAB2、TOP3A、TNKS;NEIL2基因表达下调（0〈ratio〈0.5）。结论：GMA致16HBE细胞恶性转化是一个多基因参与涉及多通路的复杂过程,DNA修复基因表达的改变可能是该过程中重要的分子事件。     

BRCA2 protects mammalian cells from heat shock

Purpose: Heat shock induces DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in mammalian cells. Mammalian cells are capable of repairing DSBs by utilising the homologous recombination (HR) pathway. Breast cancer susceptibility gene 2 (BRCA2) is known to regulate the HR pathway. Here, we investigate the role of BRCA2 in repairing DNA damage induced by heat shock.

Materials and methods: Chinese hamster lung fibroblast cell lines and human tongue squamous cell carcinoma SAS cells were used. RAD51 foci formation assay was used as an HR indicator. Heat sensitivity was analysed with colony forming assays. Phosphorylated histone H2AX (γH2AX) intensity, which correlates with the number of DSBs, was analysed with flow cytometry.

Results: RAD51 foci appeared with heat shock, and the number of cells with RAD51 foci was maximal at about 4?h after heat shock. Heat-induced RAD51 foci co-localised with γH2AX foci. BRCA2-deficient cells were sensitive to heat when compared to their parental wild-type cells. Heat-induced γH2AX was higher in BRCA2-deficient cells compared to parental cells. In SAS cells, cells transfected with BRCA2-siRNA were more sensitive to heat than cells transfected with negative control siRNA. Apoptotic bodies increased in number more rapidly in BRCA2-siRNA transfected cells than in cells transfected with negative control siRNA when cells were observed at 48?h after a heat treatment. In addition, cells deficient in BRCA2 were incapable of activating heat-induced G₂/M arrest.

Conclusion: BRCA2 has a protecting role against heat-induced cell death. BRCA2 might be a potential molecular target for hyperthermic cancer therapy.     

热休克预处理对高温致中国仓鼠肺细胞（V79）细胞DNA双链断裂的影响

目的研究热休克预处理对高温致V79细胞DNA双链断裂的影响。方法培养V79细胞,分为对照组和39℃、40℃、41℃、42℃热休克预处理组,预处理后,恢复6 h,再以43℃与45℃进行高温损伤处理,4%多聚甲醛固定,抗γ-H2AX抗体标记,然后羊抗鼠FITC二抗孵育1 h,细胞核内DNA双链断裂斑点用激光共聚焦显微镜进行观察。结果在激光共聚焦显微镜下观察,经统计：对照组细胞核内的DNA双链断裂数量与热休克预处理组细胞核内的DNA双链断裂数量差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）。结论热休克预处理可以减少高温所致V79细胞DNA双链断裂的数量,说明V79细胞可以产生对温度的适应性反应。     

Targeting of Rad51-dependent homologous recombination: implications for the radiation sensitivity of human lung cancer cell lines

The aim of the present work was to study the role of Rad51-dependent homologous recombination in the radiation response of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines. A dose- and time-dependent increase in the formation of Rad51 and gamma-H2AX foci with a maximum at about 4 and 1 h after irradiation, followed by a decrease, has been found. The relative fraction of cells with persisting Rad51 foci was 20-30% in radioresistant and 60-80% in radiosensitive cell lines. In comparison, a higher fraction of residual Dsb was evident in cell lines with nonfunctional p53. Transfection with As-Rad51 significantly downregulates radiation-induced formation of Rad51 foci and increases apoptosis, but did not influence the rejoining of DNA double-strand breaks. Interestingly, wortmannin, a well-known inhibitor of nonhomologous end-joining, also inhibits Rad51 foci formation. In general, there was no correlation between the clonogenic survival at 2 Gy and the percentage of initial Rad51 or gamma-H2AX foci after ionising radiation (IR). The most reliable predictive factor for radiosensitivity of NSCLC cell lines was the relative fraction of Rad51 foci remaining at 24 h after IR. Although most of the Rad51 foci are co-localised with gamma-H2AX foci, no correlation of the relative fraction of persisting gamma-H2AX foci and SF2 is evident.     

Attenuation of PTEN perturbs genomic stability via activation of Akt and down‐regulation of Rad51 in human embryonic kidney cells

To address the involvement of PTEN/Akt signaling in DNA repair and genomic stability, we developed a shRNA‐mediated PTEN knockdown cell line from HEK293T cells and evaluated its response to etoposide by analyzing γH2AX and Rad51 foci formation, cell cycle analysis, and chromosome damage. HEK PTEN knockdown cells were impaired in DNA repair associated with loss of G2/M checkpoint and reduced Rad51 foci formation. Furthermore, inhibition of Akt did not restore etoposide‐induced G2/M arrest in PTEN knockdown cells, suggesting that loss of G2/M checkpoint in PTEN knockdown cells is Akt‐independent. On the other hand, these cells become sensitive to etoposide when Akt was inhibited. Thus, loss of G2/M checkpoint and reduction of Rad51‐mediated homologous recombination is responsible for the genomic instability of PTEN knockdown cells where activated Akt additionally contribute to strong survival signal. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Activation of homologous recombination DNA repair in human skin fibroblasts continuously exposed to X-ray radiation

Molecular and cellular responses to protracted ionizing radiation exposures are poorly understood. Using immunofluorescence microscopy, we studied the kinetics of DNA repair foci formation in normal human fibroblasts exposed to X-rays at a dose rate of 4.5 mGy/min for up to 6 h. We showed that both the number of γH2AX foci and their integral fluorescence intensity grew linearly with time of irradiation up to 2 h. A plateau was observed between 2 and 6 h of exposure, indicating a state of balance between formation and repair of DNA double-strand breaks. In contrast, the number and intensity of foci formed by homologous recombination protein RAD51 demonstrated a continuous increase during 6 h of irradiation. We further showed that the enhancement of the homologous recombination repair was not due to redistribution of cell cycle phases. Our results indicate that continuous irradiation of normal human cells triggers DNA repair responses that are different from those elicited after acute irradiation. The observed activation of the error-free homologous recombination DNA double-strand break repair pathway suggests compensatory adaptive mechanisms that may help alleviate long-term biological consequences and could potentially be utilized both in radiation protection and medical practices.     

BRCA2-dependent and independent formation of RAD51 nuclear foci

The formation of RAD51 foci in response to ionizing radiation (IR) represents an important step in the repair of DNA double-strand breaks. RAD51 foci also appear during S phase and are thought to be required for the restart of stalled or broken replication forks. The RAD51 recombinase interacts directly with the breast cancer-associated tumour suppressor BRCA2, an interaction that is required for normal recombination proficiency, radiation resistance and genome stability. In CAPAN-1 cells, which express a truncated form of BRCA2 that is cytoplasmic because of loss of the nuclear localization signal, the formation of IR-induced RAD51 foci is impaired. In this work, we show that S-phase RAD51 foci form normally in CAPAN-1 cells expressing truncated BRCA2. Moreover, we find that RAD51 specifically associates with chromatin at S phase in a reaction that is BRCA2-independent. The observed BRCA2-dependent and independent formation of RAD51 foci shows that intact BRCA2 is not required for RAD51 focus formation per se, leading us to suggest that S phase and IR-induced RAD51 foci assemble by distinct pathways with defined protein requirements.     

BRCA2 regulates homologous recombination in response to DNA damage: implications for genome stability and carcinogenesis

BRCA2 has been implicated in the maintenance of genome stability and RAD51-mediated homologous recombination repair of chromosomal double-strand breaks (DSBs), but its role in these processes is unclear. To gain more insight into its role in homologous recombination, we expressed wild-type BRCA2 in the well-characterized BRCA2-deficient human cell line CAPAN-1 containing, as homologous recombination substrates, either direct or inverted repeats of two inactive marker genes. Whereas direct repeats monitor a mixture of RAD51-dependent and RAD51-independent homologous recombination events, inverted repeats distinguish between these events by reporting RAD51-dependent homologous recombination, gene conversion, and crossover events only. At either repeats, BRCA2 decreases the rate and frequency of spontaneous homologous recombination, but following chromosomal DSBs, BRCA2 increases the frequency of homologous recombination. At direct repeats, BRCA2 suppresses both spontaneous gene conversion and deletions, which can arise either from crossover or RAD51-independent sister chromatid replication slippage (SCRS), but following chromosomal DSBs, BRCA2 highly promotes gene conversion with little effect on deletions. At inverted repeats, spontaneous or DSB-induced crossover events were scarce and BRCA2 does not suppress their formation. From these results, we conclude that (i) BRCA2 regulates RAD51 recombination in response to the type of DNA damage and (ii) BRCA2 suppresses SCRS, suggesting a role for BRCA2 in sister chromatids cohesion and/or alignment. Loss of such control in response to estrogen-induced DNA damage after BRCA2 inactivation may be a key initial event triggering genome instability and carcinogenesis.     

Adenoviral-mediated PTEN expression radiosensitizes non-small cell lung cancer cells by suppressing DNA repair capacity

Expression of the PTEN tumor suppressor gene is abnormal in many human cancers. Loss of PTEN expression leads to the activation of downstream signaling pathways that have been associated with resistance to radiation. In non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC), suppressed expression of PTEN is frequently due to methylation of its promoter region. In this study, we tested whether gene transfer of wild-type PTEN into an NSCLC cell line with a known methylated PTEN promoter, H1299, would increase its sensitivity to ionizing radiation. Pretreating H1299 cells with an adenoviral-mediated PTEN (Ad-PTEN)-expressing vector sensitized H1299 cells to radiation. To determine the mechanism responsible for radiosensitization, we first examined radiation-induced apoptosis, which was enhanced but did not correlate with radiosensitizing effect of Ad-PTEN. Therefore, we next examined the ability of Ad-PTEN to modulate the repair of radiation-induced DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) using the detection of repair foci positive for gamma-H2AX, a protein that becomes evident at the sites of each DSB and that can be visualized by immunofluorescent staining. Compared with controls, the repair of radiation-induced DSBs was retarded in H1299 cells pretreated with Ad-PTEN, consistent with the radiosensitizing effect of the vector. We conclude that signal transduction pathways residing primarily in the cytoplasm may intersect with DNA damage and repair pathways in the nucleus to modulate cellular responses to radiation. Elucidating the mechanisms responsible for this intersection may lead to novel strategies for improving therapy for cancers with defective PTEN.     

Unrepairable DNA double-strand breaks initiate cytotoxicity with HSV-TK/ganciclovir

The herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (HSV-TK) is the most widely used suicide gene in cancer gene therapy due to its superior anticancer activity with ganciclovir (GCV) compared with other HSV-TK substrates, such as 1-β-D-arabinofuranosyl thymine (araT). We have evaluated the role of DNA damage as a mechanism for the superiority of GCV. Using γ-H2AX foci as an indicator of DNA damage, GCV induced ≥ sevenfold more foci than araT at similar cytotoxic concentrations. The number of foci decreased after removal of either drug, followed by an increase in Rad51 foci indicating that homologous recombination repair (HRR) was used to repair this damage. Notably, only GCV produced a late and persistent increase in γ-H2AX foci demonstrating the induction of unrepairable DNA damage. Both drugs induced the ATR damage response pathway, as evidenced by Chk1 activation. However, GCV resulted in greater activation of ATM, which coincided with the late induction of γ-H2AX foci, demonstrating the presence of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). The increase in DSBs after Rad51 induction suggested that they occurred as a result of a failed attempt at HRR. These data demonstrate that the late and unrepairable DSBs observed uniquely with GCV account for its superior cytotoxicity and further suggest that inhibition of HRR will enhance cytotoxicity with HSV-TK/GCV.