Traditional plant-based remedies to control insect vectors of disease in the Arribes del Duero (western Spain): an ethnobotanical study

Ethnopharmacological relevance

In several Spanish rural communities, simple and effective plant-based remedies are employed for the control of vector-borne diseases. Hence, the aim of this study was to assess the knowledge and usage custom of traditional insect control in the Arribes del Duero-ARD-(Salamanca-Zamora, W Spain).

Materials and methods

Between 2005 and 2009, 116 semi-structured interviews of 80 non-specialist people (44 men and 36 women; mean age, 72) were conducted. This community was located in the Arribes del Duero Natural Park, representative of a highly heterogeneous Mediterranean landscape with a strong decline in the population and a significant proportion (almost 40%) age 65 or greater. We calculated the cultural importance for each species cited. To analyze how traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) varies with the characteristics of the informants, we performed an ANCOVA.

Results and conclusions

We documented the traditional use of 22 vascular plants as remedies to prevent or treat external parasites, and control mosquitoes, flies and other nuisance insects. There were described 27 plant remedies, of which 16 (59%) continue to be in use, including basil (Ocimum basilicum L. and Ocimum minimum L.) as a repellent for mosquitoes and houseflies. Most of the plant species contain phenols and/or terpenoids, and in several investigations bioassays have been performed to test their repellent and/or insecticidal properties. Three taxa (Ballota nigra L., Cicer arietinum L. and Ocimum minimum) have not been tested and these may offer excellent natural remedies. As well as allowing the discovery of new chemical compounds with insecticidal activity, this traditional knowledge may be paramount in the control of potential populations of vectors of emerging diseases in the Mediterranean region without harming the environment.     

An inventory of the ethnobotanicals used as anti-diabetic by a rural community of Dhemaji district of Assam, Northeast India

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Traditional remedies used for treating diabetic ailments are very important in the primary health care of the people living in rural Dhemaji district of Assam, north-east India. Novel information gathered from the current survey is important in preserving folk indigenous knowledge.

Materials and methods

Interviews were conducted amongst 80 households comprising of 240 individuals using semi-structured questionnaires. The focus was on plants used in treating diabetes mellitus.

Results

The current survey documented 21 plant species (20 families) which are reportedly used to treat diabetes mellitus by the rural people in the study area. To the best of our knowledge, Amomum linguiforme, Cinnamomum impressinervium, Colocasia esculenta, Dillenia indica, Euphorbia ligularia, Garcinia pedunculata, Solanum indicum, Sterculia villosa and Tabernaemontana divaricata are recorded for the first time based on globally published literature as medicinal plants used for treating diabetes mellitus and related symptoms.

Conclusions

The wide variety of plants that are used to treat diabetes mellitus in this area supports the traditional value that medicinal plants have in the primary health care system of the rural people of Dhemaji district of Assam. The finding of new plant uses in the current study reveals the importance of the documentation of such ethnobotanical knowledge.     

Antiplasmodial and cytotoxic activities of medicinal plants traditionally used in the village of Kiohima, Uganda

Aim of the study

In Uganda, malaria is the most common disease and Ugandan people largely rely on traditional medicine. In this context, we carried out an ethnobotanical study on the Kiohima village, located close to the Kibale National Park in South-Western Uganda and investigated in vitro the antiplasmodial and cytotoxic activities of selected medicinal plants.

Materials and methods

Seventy-five plants-using adults (men and women) were interviewed to find out their plant use. From these information, 48 plants used in traditional medicine were identified and according to their reported uses and to bibliographic data, several parts of 28 plants (leaves, barks, roots), were selected and collected for biological evaluations. These samples were dried, extracted with ethyl acetate and the crude extracts were assayed for in vitro antiplasmodial and cytotoxic activities at 10 μg/mL.

Results

One third of the screened plants showed a significant antiplasmodial activity with inhibition greater than 50% at 10 μg/mL.

Conclusion

These results may indicate a possible explanation of the use of some medicinal plant against malaria in the village of Kiohima and have also allowed to highlight a plant with potent antimalarial activity: Citropsis articulata root barks.     

Malaria in the Renaissance: remedies from European herbals from the 16th and 17th century

Background

From antiquity up into the 20th century tertian and quartan malaria which are caused by the parasites Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium malariae were widespread in Central Europe. Hundreds of different remedies against malaria can be found in herbals from the Renaissance.

Aim of the study

To document and discuss from a modern pharmacological viewpoint the old remedies described in eight 16th and 17th century herbals written in German.

Materials and methods

Eight of the most important herbals of the 16th and17th century including Bock (1577), Fuchs (1543), Matthiolus (1590), Lonicerus (1560), Brunfels (1532), Zwinger (1696), and Tabernaemontanus (1591 and 1678) were searched for terms related to malaria, and documented plants and recipes described for its treatment. Additionally the overlapping of these remedies with those in De Materia Medica by the Greek physician Dioscorides was studied.

Results

Three hundred and fourteen taxa were identified in the herbals for this indication. Recent pharmacological data was found for just 5% of them. The influence of De Materia Medica was shown to be negligible with only 3.5% of the remedies in common.

Conclusions

European Renaissance herbals may be a valuable source of information for the selection of plants for focussed antiplasmodial screening programmes, but have received only little scientific attention. Antimalarial remedies from these herbals must be viewed as independent sources of knowledge separate from Dioscorides’ De Materia Medica.     

Pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the Riverside of Navarra (Iberian Peninsula)

Aim of the study

This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on pharmaceutical plant uses in the Riverside of Navarra. Thereby, it will extend and complement a recent previous study carried out in the Northern Navarra. This paper aim to collect, analyse and evaluate the ethnobotanical knowledge about medicinal plants in the Riverside of Navarra (Iberian Peninsula) with 2554.4 km² and 144,674 inhabitants.

Material and methods

We performed semi-structured interviews with 147 informants (mean age 76 years; the percentage of men and women was almost 50%) in 34 locations, identified the plants reported and analyzed the results, comparing them with those from other territories.

Results

The informants reported data on 90 medicinal plants belonging to 39 botanical families. This work is focused on human medicinal plant uses, which represent 99% of the pharmaceutical uses (541). The species with the highest number of cites are Santolina chamaecyparissus ssp. squarrosa, Thymus vulgaris, Rosmarinus officinalis and Urtica dioica. All different plant parts are used; aerial part is exploited more frequently than other plant parts. Most of the listed remedies use a single ingredient, typically soaked in water. The percentage of internal uses is three times higher than external uses.

Conclusions

The main ailments treated are digestive troubles, dermatological problems, and respiratory affections. Informants reported 11 new or scarcely cited uses for 8 medicinal plants. For 50% of the species (4) we have not found bibliographical references in the scientific literature and 50% have only one or two references.     

Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants commonly used by Kani tribals in Tirunelveli hills of Western Ghats, India

Ethnopharmacological relevance

For thousands of years, medicinal plants have played an important role throughout the world in treating and preventing a variety of diseases. Kani tribal people in Tirunelveli hills still depend on medicinal plants and most of them have a general knowledge of medicinal plants which are used for first aid remedies, to treat cough, cold, fever, headache, poisonous bites and some simple ailments.

Aim of the study

The present study was initiated with an aim to identify traditional healers who are practicing herbal medicine among the Kani tribals in Tirunelveli hills of Western Ghats, India and quantitatively document their indigenous knowledge on the utilization of medicinal plants particularly most common ethnomedicinal plants.

Methods

Field study was carried out over a period of 4 years in Tirunelveli hills. The ethnomedicinal information was collected through interviews among the Kani traditional healers. The collected data were analyzed through use value (UV), informant consensus factor (F_ic), fidelity level (FL) and relative importance (RI).

Results

A total of 90 species of plants distributed in 83 genera belonging to 52 families were identified as commonly used ethnomedicinal plants by the Kani traditional healers in Tirunelveli hills for the treatment of 65 types of ailments. These ailments were categorized into 15 ailment categories based on the body systems treated. Leaves were the most frequently used plant parts and most of the medicines were prepared in the form of paste and administered orally. F_ic values of the present study indicated that there was a high agreement in the use of plants in the treatment of jaundice and diabetes among the users. Dermatological infections/diseases and gastro-intestinal disorders had highest use-reports and 29 species of plants had the highest fidelity level of 100%. The most important species according to their use value were Gymneme sylvestre (2.00), Melia azedarach, Murraya koenigii, Syzygium cumini and Terminalia chebula (1.83).

Conclusion

As a result of the present study we can recommend the plants Alpinia galanga, Azadirachta indica, Calophyllum inophyllum, Gymnema sylvestre, Leucas aspera, M. azedarach, Mollugo nudicaulis, Ocimum tenuiflorum, S. cumini, T. chebula and Tribulus terrestris (with high UV and RI values), Bambusa arundinacea, Datura metel, Evolvulus nummularius, Opuntia dillenii and Physalis minima (newly reported claims with highest FL) for further ethnopharmacological studies for the discovery of potential new drugs.     

Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants utilised by Hani ethnicity in Naban River Watershed National Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China

Aim of the study

This study was conducted in the Naban River Watershed National Nature Reserve to identify and analyse knowledge and use of wild plants for medicinal purposes by Hani ethnicity and to search out culturally as well as economically important plant species and land use types.

Material and methods

Ethnobotanical data was collected using freelisting interviews with randomly selected informants and semi-structured as well as field interviews. Plant specimens were collected, identified and deposited at the Herbarium of Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Mengla, Yunnan Province, China. Data were analysed by use-reports, in addition important indices like relative frequency of citation (RFC) and cultural importance index (CI) were calculated. Smith's salience index was assessed using Anthropac 4.08. Consensus analysis was applied to measure informant agreement on plants used in different medicinal use categories.

Results

A total of 199 medicinal plants belonging to 73 families were recorded. Dominant families are Asteraceae (5.5%), Piperaceae and Verbenaceae (4.5%), Fabaceae, Liliaceae (4.0%) and Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae and Solanaceae (3.5%). Most culturally salient species from freelisting analysis were Dendrobium crepidatum Lindl. ex Paxt. (Smith's SI = 0.41), Aristolochia sp. (0.306), Microstegium ciliatum (Trin.) A. Camus (0.129), Eupatorium coelestinum L. (0.119), Litsea martabanica (Kurz) Hook. F. (0.116) and Psidium guajava L. (0.103). The majority of the utilised species were collected from forest (51.9%), followed by fallow land (22.52%), arable fields (14.5%), and homegardens (11.08%).

Conclusions

It became clear that the knowledge of medicinal plants is not homogenously distributed among Hani. Based on the percentage of collected medicinal plants from four habitat types, forest is the most important source of medicinal plants for Hani but when considering the cultural importance of species it seems that homegardens are slightly more important than other habitats.     

Traditional phytotherapy remedies used in Southern Rwanda for the treatment of liver diseases

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Liver diseases represent a major health problem due to their complications and limited treatment possibilities. In Rwanda, given low accessibility to modern treatments, most people still rely on traditional medicinal plants. The symptomatology of many hepatic troubles (icterus) is evident for traditional healers who have a high probability of selecting efficient herbal medicines.

Objectives

To document medicines used in the treatment of “hepatitis” in Southern Rwanda with the knowledge, attitudes and practices related to liver disorder recognition, control and treatment.

Materials and methods

56 traditional health practitioners, each a legal representative of an official association, were interviewed and participated in plant collection for the preparation of botanically identified herbarium specimens.

Results

68 multi-component and 65 single-component herbal recipes were identified for the treatment of liver diseases with a total of 86 different herbs from 34 families identified. The most represented were the Asteraceae and the Lamiaceae. Crassocephalum vitellinum, Hypoestes triflora and Erythrina abyssinica were the most widely used plants. The principle of polymedication for complex (i.e. multifactorial) diseases (“Ifumbi” in Rwanda), is a constant in every traditional practice. It is striking that the Rwandese therapy of liver diseases proposes so many single-herb preparations (49% of all herbal preparations). Some of the recorded plants or other species from the same genus have previously been documented for liver protection using various in vivo and in vitro models.

Conclusion

Herbal remedies for hepatitis are widely used and highly diverse in Southern Rwanda; further chemical, pharmacological and toxicological studies are clearly required to rationally develop the most important remedies.     

Antituberculosis potential of some ethnobotanically selected Malaysian plants

Aim of the study

Many local plants are used in Malaysian traditional medicine to treat respiratory diseases including symptoms of tuberculosis. The aim of the study was to screen 78 plant extracts from 70 Malaysian plant species used in traditional medicine to treat respiratory diseases including symptoms of tuberculosis for activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv using a colorimetric microplate-based assay.

Materials and methods

Plant extracts were prepared by maceration in methanol (80%) and antituberculosis screening was carried out using Tetrazolium bromide microplate assay (TEMA) method to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC).

Results

Thirty-eight plant extracts from 36 plant species exhibited antituberculosis activity with MICs in the range of 1600-400 μg/ml. The leaf extract of Angiopteris evecta exhibited the highest activity with MIC of 400 μg/ml. Five other extracts, namely, Costus speciosus (stem and flower), Piper sarmentosum (whole plant), Pluchea indica (leaf), Pluchea indica (flower), and Tabernaemontana coronaria (leaf) exhibited antituberculosis activity, each with MIC of 800 μg/ml. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of in vitro high throughput screening of Malaysian medicinal plants for antituberculosis activity.

Conclusions

Antituberculosis activity of extracts of some plants justifies, to a certain extent their ethnomedicinal uses as remedies for symptoms of tuberculosis. These results also support the general view that, selecting the plants based on ethnobotanical criteria would enhance the probability of finding species with antituberculosis activity.     

Medicinal plants in Baskoure, Kourittenga Province, Burkina Faso: an ethnobotanical study

Aim of the study

The majority of people living in Kourittenga Province, Burkina Faso, are highly dependent on medicinal plants for their daily health care. Knowledge on the use of medicinal plants by traditional healers is being seriously threatened, due to the fact that it is commonly transferred from one generation to another only verbally. Moreover, recent environmental changes, deforestation, and unsustainable rates of exploitation, represent a serious risk for plant species diversity. Thus, there is a need to record and document indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants in this country. The aim of this study was to report on the use of medicinal plants by traditional healers to treat human diseases in a rural area located in the East-Centre Region of Burkina Faso (Baskoure Area), which has not yet been studied from an ethnobotanical point of view.

Materials and methods

The research was carried out over a period of 8 months, by means of open-ended and semi-structured interviews. A total of 41 traditional healers were interviewed, and group meetings were organised with family members and other local inhabitants having knowledge of traditional medicine.

Results

A total of 190 plant species were recorded. Most medicinal plants used to prepare concoctions were herbs, and leaves were the most frequently used parts. A high percentage of plants were used against gastrointestinal diseases and malaria, which are the prevalent diseases in the study area. The major source of remedies came from wild plants, indicating that cultivation of medicinal plants is not a common practice.

Conclusions

Our study represents an inventory on medicinal plants used in a rural area of Burkina Faso, and confirms that wild plants are widely utilised as health remedies in this area. The collected data may help to avoid the loss of traditional knowledge on the use of medicinal plants detained by traditional healers, and represent the preliminary information required in view of a future phytochemical investigation on the most used plants.     

Plant use in the medicinal practices known as "strict diets" in Chazuta valley (Peruvian Amazon)

Aim of the study

Strict diets are traditional medicinal practices where plant remedies are consumed with nearly fasting and with some sort of social seclusion. The aim of this work was to describe these practices of Chazuta and the use of plants within, as well as to analyse the possible functions of the last.

Material and methods

The information was obtained through interviews to the 6.3% of the district rural adult population (140 individuals, 75% of which was considered Quechua).

Results

In total, 122 strict diets were recorded and 106 different plant species were reported to be used. Strict diets present a characteristic structure and plant use. The main effects reported in strict diets were antinflammatory, antiinfective, brain function alteration and depuration.

Conclusions

Strict diets are well structured traditional medicinal practices, also with a symbolic significance in the life cycle of chazutian men. Plants used in strict diets can contribute to the main effects through antinflammation, antiinfective actions, psychoactivity and depurative related activities. The correlation between literature evidence of activity of most used plants and effects reported for the correspondent diet (i.e. in which the plant was used) are 36% for antinflammatory activity, 29% for antimicrobial activity, 18% for psychoactivity and 5% for depurative related activities. The percentages go to 77%, 64%, 73% and 32%, respectively, when literature evidences on related taxa are also considered.     

Ethnopharmacological survey of plants used for the treatment of female infertility in Baham, Cameroon

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Infertility affects many women in Cameroon, with a rate of about 25%. This study aimed at collecting and documenting information on herbal remedies traditionally used for the treatment of women infertility in Baham subdivision (Western Region of Cameroon).

Materials and methods

Fieldwork was undertaken as an ethnopharmacological survey involving thirty-two traditional medicine practitioners interviewed in 8 villages of the Baham sub-division. Personal information on interviewees as well as issues related to medicinal use of plants were recorded using structured questionnaires. A literature investigation on the therapeutic or pharmacological properties of recorded medicinal plants was further undertaken.

Results

From this inventory, a total of 46 plant species belonging to 43 genera and 26 families have been registered. These plants are used in 32 recipes and prepared as maceration (43%) or decoction (40%) of only one plant (25%) or of the mixture of two (22%), three (28%), four (22%) or even seven (3%) medicinal plants. Globally, they are given orally during 30 days, at an average dosage of two glasses per day. The literature confirms the use of the majority of these plants for the treatment of the woman infertility and illnesses that are associated to it.

Conclusion

This research shows that traditional healers of the Baham subdivision use various recipes of medicinal plants for the treatment of female infertility. The valorization of this potential could be important for the conservation of these plants and the improvement of women reproductive health.     

Zootherapeutic practices in Aquismón, San Luis Potosí, México

Ethnopharmacological importance

Animal derived products have been a source of medicinal compounds since ancient times. This work documents the use of animal species in traditional medicine in the municipality of Aquismón, San Luis Potosí, México.

Materials and methods

Direct interviews were performed with inhabitants from Aquismón. The interviews were analyzed with two quantitative tools: (a) the informant consensus (ICF) that estimates the level of agreement about which animals may be used for each category and (b) the relative importance (RI) that determines the extent of potential utilization of each species.

Results

A total of 24 animal species used for medicinal purposes, belonging to 22 families and 4 taxonomic categories, were reported by interviewees. Nine medicinal species had not been reported in scientific literature. The results of the IFC showed that diseases of the respiratory systems had the greatest agreement. The most versatile species according to their RI are Crotalus atrox and Mephitis macroura.

Conclusion

Further studies with medicinal fauna from Aquismón are required for the experimental validation of their traditional uses, especially with Mephitis macroura and Crotalus atrox.     

Ethnomedicinal application of plants in the western plain region of North Jeolla Province in Korea

Ethnopharmacological relevance

This study aims to record and conserve oral traditional knowledge of medicinal plants from the indigenous people living in the western plain region of North Jeolla Province, Korea.

Materials and methods

Our research team interviewed 46 key informants (20 men and 26 women) who have lived over 50 years in the area. The average age of the informants was 74 (with a minimum age of 56 to maximum 84). Data was collected through the participatory rural appraisal method involving interviews, informal meetings, open and group discussions, and overt observation using semi-structured questionnaires.

Results

Ethnobotanical inventory possessed by the residents included 183 species of plants distributed in 156 genera belonging to 68 families and were used in 626 use-reports. Among them, the medicinal plants were comprised as 42 families, 75 genera, and 83 species in usage in 195 ways. A total of 71 ailments were treated with 222 kinds of remedies using medicinal plants. Parts of plant that were used as treatments total up to 17 and the methods of preparation for medicinal materials add up to 28. Informant consensus factor (ICF) showed that the muscular-skeletal disorders had the highest agreement measure (1.0) followed by cuts and wounds (0.87) and respiratory system disorders (0.77). Overall, 29 plant species showed fidelity level of 100%.

Conclusions

This study is noteworthy in that it records rapidly disappearing traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in a time period of pressing environmental changes with regard to the newly built sea wall, eventually leading more or less to the immigration of the seaside inhabitants and the familiarization of the modern medical systems to the farmland inhabitants.     

Plants used by native Amazonian groups from the Nanay River (Peru) for the treatment of malaria

Aim of the study

In order to evaluate the antimalarial potential of traditional remedies used in Peru, Indigenous and Mestizo populations from the river Nanay in Loreto were interviewed about traditional medication for the treatment of malaria.

Materials and methods

The survey took place on six villages and led to the collection of 59 plants. 35 hydro-alcoholic extractions were performed on the 21 most cited plants. The extracts were then tested for antiplasmodial activity in vitro on Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistant strain (FCR-3), and ferriprotoporphyrin inhibition test was also performed in order to assume pharmacological properties.

Results

Extracts from 9 plants on twenty-one tested (Abuta rufescens, Ayapana lanceolata, Capsiandra angustifolia, Citrus limon, Citrus paradise, Minquartia guianensis, Potalia resinífera, Scoparia dulcis, and Physalis angulata) displayed an interesting antiplasmodial activity (IC₅₀ < 10 μg/ml) and 16 remedies were active on the ferriprotoporphyrin inhibition test.

Conclusions

The results give scientific validation to the traditional medical knowledge of the Amerindian and Mestizo populations from Loreto and exhibit a source of potentially active plants.     

Renaissance remedies: Antiplasmodial protostane triterpenoids from Alisma plantago-aquatica L. (Alismataceae)

Aim of the study

In a preliminary screen of extracts from plants used as antimalarial remedies used in Europe in the 16th and 17th, the ethyl acetate extract of Alisma plantago-aquatica L. (Alismataceae) was active against Plasmodium falciparum K1 strain with 77% growth inhibition at 4.9 μg/ml. The aim of this study was to isolate and identify the substances responsible for this antiplasmodial activity.

Materials and methods

With HPLC-based activity profiling in combination with HPLC hyphenated methods (HPLC-PDA, -MSn, HR-MS, and off-line microprobe NMR) the activity was assigned to time windows, and the substances contained therein were characterised chemically. The active compounds were isolated with semi-preparative HPLC and structures were elucidated with high resolution mass spectrometry, and 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy.

Results

Four compounds were isolated and identified as protostane triterpenoids alisol A, alisol B 11-monoacetate, alisol B 23-monoacetate, and alisol G. Their IC₅₀s against Plasmodium falciparum ranged from 5.4 to 13.8 μM.

Conclusions

This is the first report of antiplasmodial activity from protostanes triterpenoids, and the first result of our ongoing project of screening for antiprotozoal natural products from remedies used in European renaissance medicine.     

The mechanism of vasorelaxation induced by ethanol extract of Sophora flavescens in rat aorta

Aim of the study

Sophora flavescens (SF) is a known medicinal herb for the treatment of cardiovascular symptoms associated with arrhythmia in China. However, the pharmacological action mechanisms involved have not been well studied. The aim of the present study was to define effects of roots of SF on the vascular tension and responsible mechanisms in rat thoracic aorta.

Materials and methods

Ethanol extract of the roots of SF (ESF) was examined for their vascular relaxant effect in isolated phenylephrine-precontracted rat thoracic aorta.

Results

ESF (0.1-100 μg/ml) induced relaxation of the phenylephrine-precontracted aortic rings in a concentration-dependent manner. Endothelium-denudation abolished the ESF-induced vasorelaxation. Pretreatment of the endothelium-intact aortic rings with l-NAME, an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, and ODQ, an inhibitor of soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC), inhibited ESF-induced vasorelaxation. ESF increased cGMP levels of the aortic rings in a concentration-dependent manner and the effect was blocked by l-NAME and ODQ. Inhibition of K⁺ channels with glibenclamide and tetraethylammonium, cyclooxygenase inhibition with indomethacin, and β-adrenergic and muscarinic receptors blockade had no effect on the ESF-induced vasorelaxation.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that ESF relaxes vascular smooth muscle via endothelium-dependent NO-sGC-cGMP signaling pathway.     

Ethnobotanical study of anthelmintic and other medicinal plants traditionally used in Loitoktok district of Kenya

Aim of the study

The objective of the study was to investigate and document the utilization of medicinal (with emphasis on anthelmintic) plants by the people of Loitoktok district in Kenya for the management of both animal and human health.

Materials and methods

The study was conducted between May and October 2009. Information was gathered from 23 traditional health practitioners, from across the district, by use of semi-structured questionnaires; transect walks, oral interviews and focus group discussions. Voucher specimens of cited plants were collected and deposited at the botanical herbarium of the University of Nairobi.

Results

A total of 80 medicinal plants cited were collected and identified as belonging to 46 families and 70 genera. The plants identified were 48%, 38%, 7%, 6% and 1% trees, shrubs, herbs, lianas and lichens, respectively. Most of the plants belonged to the families Fabaceae (10%), Euphorbiaceae (6%), Rutaceae (5%) followed by Boraginaceae, Labiateae, Rubiaceae, and Solanaceae at 4% each. However, the six most important families by their medicinal use values in decreasing order were Rhamnaceae, Myrsinaceae, Oleaceae, Liliaceae, Usenaceae and Rutaceae. The ailments treated included respiratory conditions, helminthosis, stomach disorders, malaria, sexually transmitted diseases, infertilities and physical injuries. Helminthosis in both livestock and humans was recognized as a major disease managed by use of medicinal plants (with an informant consensus factor of 0.86) in the study area. The most frequently used plant anthelmintics were Albizia anthelmintica (Fabaceae), Myrsine africana (Myrsinaceae), Rapanea melanophleos (Myrsinaceae), Clausena anisata (Rutaceae) and Olea Africana (Oleaceae) used by 70%, 70%, 26%, 13% and 9% of the respondents, respectively. Other plant anthelmintics used, each by 4% of the respondents, were Rumex usambarensis (Polygonaceae) and Salvadora persica (Salvadoraceae).

Conclusion

It is concluded that traditional health practice in Loitoktok depend largely on naturally growing plants and that the study area has a potential for bio-prospecting of crude drugs from plants due to the large number of medicinal plants cited. There is also need for further studies to validate the plants used in medicinal remedies in this area.     

Traditional healers and laypeople: a qualitative and quantitative approach to local knowledge on medicinal plants in Muda (Mozambique)

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Through this study, relevant information was gathered on the knowledge about medicinal remedies in some rural communities of Muda (central Mozambique). The use of 198 different medicinal plants has been recorded and a significant number of medicinal species and uses new for Africa and particularly for Mozambique has been detected. Our investigation appears to be the first comparing knowledge about medicinal plants between laypeople and traditional healers and also between the two kinds of healers (curandeiros and profetas).

Materials and methods

Ethnobotanical data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with 67 informants: 9 curandeiros (traditional healers believed to be guided by spirits), 12 profetas (independent Pentecostal churches “prophets” healing both souls and bodies) and 46 untrained lay villagers. Data were entered in a data base and processed, also by means of suitable quantitative indexes.

Results

A total of 546 citations were recorded for 198 different ethnospecies (i.e. basic ethno-taxonomical units). The species with the highest cultural value (estimated with Cultural Importance index) resulted to be Ximenia caffra (CI = 0.224), Zanha golungensis (CI = 0.194) Vernonia colorata (CI = 0.149) and Ozoroa reticulata and Holarrhena pubescens (both with CI = 0.134). Eight out of the 162 identified plants mentioned by the informants were not previously recorded as medicinal plants in Africa: Cissus bathyrhakodes, Clematis viridiflora, Combretum goetzei, Dioscorea cochleari-apiculata, Grewia pachycalyx, Indigofera antunesiana, Ipomoea consimilis, Tricliceras longipedunculatum. More than half of the species reported by our informants and already known as medicinal in Africa resulted to be newly documented for Mozambique. Comparing the mean number of species known by each informant group, statistically significant differences were observed both between curandeiros and laypeople and between profetas and laypeople. No significant differences emerged instead between curandeiros and profetas. Yet, even laypeople proved to hold quite a good knowledge about medicinal remedies; women in particular use several different plants to heal common diseases of the whole family, mostly for children and female health problems.

Conclusions

The high number of plants and uses recorded demonstrates that in the study area ethnobotanical knowledge is still quite rich and alive. The finding of many medicinal plants and uses new for Mozambique or even Africa shows the importance of recording this knowledge before it vanishes, also as a basis for further investigations on possible pharmacological properties of local plants.The lack of health infrastructures in Muda results in the need for lay villagers of acquiring and developing a rather high degree of knowledge about plants remedies; in a different interaction between healers and lay villagers, compared to urban areas; ultimately, in a different distribution and wider spread of traditional knowledge on medicinal plants.