To close or not to close? Treatment of abdominal compartment syndrome by neuromuscular blockade without laparostomy

Abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) is a recognised postoperative complication seen frequently in the intensive care unit (ICU). Surgical decompression and laparostomy remain the gold standard treatment for established ACS, combined with supportive non-surgical therapy, such as nasogastric decompression. In the following case report, we describe our successful management of a patient with established postoperative ACS by re-laparotomy to exclude a reversible cause, immediate re-closure of the abdomen and prolonged neuromuscular blockade, avoiding a laparostomy.     

Recognition and management of intra-abdominal hypertension and the abdominal compartment syndrome

Intra-abdominal pressure can be elevated by a variety of surgical and medical causes. Abnormally high intra-abdominal pressures can lead to multi-system organ dysfunction due to a combination of direct pressure effects and the release of endo-toxins which can be life threatening.     

Significance of early diagnosis of abdominal compartment syndrome in major burns

Four cases of abdominal compartment syndrome in patients suffering major burns, who were treated at Hamilton General Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, from January 1998 to June 2003, are reported. The pathophysiological changes, and the high morbidity and mortality associated with this condition are also described. The significance of early diagnosis of this syndrome is discussed. The literature is reviewed and a protocol is suggested for measuring urinary bladder pressure when managing major burns.     

严重创伤并发腹腔间室综合征的诊治

目的:总结严重创伤后并发腹腔间室综合征(abdominal compartment syndrome,ACS)的诊治经验。方法:回顾分析近两年半时间内严重创伤后并发ACS病人的临床资料,10例行开腹减压者入组;1例为电击伤致腹壁裂开、腹腔脏器外露,腹壁裂口处组织呈焦痂、挛缩状态,外露小肠肿胀明显,还纳后强行关腹势必会形成腹腔内高压状态,因此亦行腹腔临时关闭,故入组一并讨论。结果:11例均行腹腔开放减压,1例术后死于酸中毒、多脏器功能衰竭,其余病人二期行关腹或皮瓣移植术后出院。结论:腹部严重创伤合并ACS的病人伤情危重、复杂,早期诊断和及时的开腹减压是抢救的关键,遵循损伤控制原则和给予合理的营养支持治疗是改善预后的重要措施。     

Current insights in intra-abdominal hypertension and abdominal compartment syndrome: open the abdomen and keep it open!

Background and aims  The abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) is associated with organ dysfunction and mortality in critically ill patients. Furthermore, the deleterious effects of increased IAP have been shown to occur at levels of intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) previously deemed to be safe. The aim of this article is to provide an overview of all aspects of this underrecognized pathological syndrome for surgeons. Methods and contents  This review article will focus primarily on the recent literature on ACS as well as the definitions and recommendations published by the World Society for the Abdominal Compartment Syndrome. The definitions regarding increased IAP will be listed, followed by a brief but comprehensive overview of the different mechanisms of organ dysfunction associated with intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH). Measurement techniques for IAP will be discussed, as well as recommendations for organ function support in patients with IAH. Finally, surgical treatment and management of the open abdomen are briefly discussed, as well as some minimally invasive techniques to decrease IAP. Conclusions  The ACS was first described in surgical patients with abdominal trauma, bleeding, or infection, but in recent years ACS has also been described in patients with other pathologies such as burn injury and sepsis. Some of these so-called nonsurgical patients will require surgery to treat their ACS. This review article is intended to provide surgeons with a clear insight into the current state of knowledge regarding IAH, ACS, and the impact of IAP on the critically ill patient.     

暂时性腹腔关闭技术在腹腔间隔室综合征中的应用

目的探讨暂时性腹腔关闭技术在腹腔间隔室综合征中的应用。方法总结我院2006年1月至2009年12月共13例腹腔间隔室综合征应用暂时性腹腔关闭技术患者的临床资料,分析其治疗方法和效果。结果本组13例患者中,死亡1例,其余12例行确定性关腹,暂时性腹腔关闭平均11．6（7～48）d;确定性腹腔关闭后,切口的愈合时间为（15．3±8．4）d。出现切口疝1例。结论暂时性腹腔关闭技术是治疗腹腔间隔室综合征有效、安全、经济的方法。     

再论腹腔间隙综合征

Since we called for the attention of the occurrence of abdominal compartment syndrome in 2002, forty cases of this complication have been recognized and reported by six burn units in this journal, including three cases accompanied with massive pleural effusion (1601 - 3240 mL). Most cases emerged after "aggressive" fluid resuscitation, especially after massive infusion of crystalloid fluid. The idea "more fluid no harm" should be corrected. The goal of early fluid resuscitation in burn is to correct the hypovolemia and cell hypoxia, and circulating fluid just serves as a carrier in bringing O2 to the cells and carrying out CO2 and other metabolites from tissues. In face of "leaking while infusing", heavy accumulation of fluid in the third spaces may worsen the cell hypoxia. Some of the parameters we get from invasive monitoring systems can be misleading. Now, the trend of overloading should be prevented, and it behaves us to study the regime of lower fluid volume with proper contents in burn shock resuscitation.     

急性重症胰腺炎并发腹腔高压/腹腔室隔综合征类型探讨

目的提出重症胰腺炎并发腹腔高压／腹腔室隔综合征(IAH／ACS)的不同类型及治疗原则。方法结合典型病例，提出重症胰腺炎并发腹腔高压／腹腔室隔综合征不同类型，并对每种类型的临床特征、处理方法进行总结。结果Ⅰ型腹腔室隔综合征(胃肠型)以胃肠道功能障碍、胃肠大量气液积聚为特征，主要影响呼吸功能；Ⅱ型(腹膜后型)以腹膜后大量渗出或组织坏死为特征，其中早期型以组织坏死为主，迟发型以液体积聚为特征，主要影响心、肾功能。临床和CT动态观察可以明确ACS类型和严重程度。Ⅰ型ACS治疗以积极处理原发病、纠正水电解质酸碱失衡、胃肠减压、导泻为治疗原则；Ⅱ型ACS应选择适当的手术减压时机，其中早发型手术并发症多，而迟发型手术效果较好。结论明确重症胰腺炎并发IAH／ACS类型，针对不同类型IAH／ACS选择不同治疗手段有助于提高疗效、减少并发症、缩短住院时间和降低诊疗费用。     

Outcomes in surgical versus medical patients with the secondary abdominal compartment syndrome

BACKGROUND: Secondary abdominal compartment syndrome (SACS) is a well-recognized sequelae of massive fluid resuscitation in surgical patients, but has only anecdotally been reported in the medical patient population. The purpose of this study was to compare the clinical scenarios, physiologic indices, and outcomes of patients with SACS due to medical versus trauma etiologies. METHODS: Patients undergoing decompression for SACS from January 1999 to January 2006 were identified using our computerized operative records. RESULTS: During the 7-year study period, 54 patients developed SACS (41 postinjury patients and 13 medical patients). There were no significant differences in demographics, physiologic indices, or fluid resuscitation between the medical and postinjury groups: age (46.6 +/- 4.7 vs 40.6 +/- 2.3), bladder pressure (33.5 +/- 1.1 vs 32.8 +/- 1.8), peak airway pressures (45.9 +/- 2.4 vs 49.3 +/- 2.1), base deficit (14.6 +/- 1.4 vs 13.6 +/- 1.1), and fluids (18.5 +/- 1.8 vs 16.0 +/- 1.5 liters). Patients with a medical cause of SACS had a significantly longer time to decompression (21 +/- 3.6 versus 6.5 +/- 1.9 hours), significantly higher incidence of MOF (62% v 27%), and trend toward greater mortality (54% versus 34%). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with diverse disease processes may develop SACS. Despite similar age and physiologic indices, the MOF and mortality rates associated with medical SACS are markedly higher. These findings highlight the need for routine monitoring in at-risk patients, prevention of pathologic intra-abdominal hypertension, and a low threshold for decompression.     

Respiratory mechanics in abdominal compartment syndrome and large incisional hernias of the abdominal wall

Summary The abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) is a clinical condition characterized by an increase of abdominal pressure which needs prompt abdominal decompression. The surgery of large abdominal hernias can present similar problems with an increased abdominal pressure at peritoneal closure which needs a prosthetic tension-free abdominal closure to correct the increased respiratory work-load. We undertook a study in order to compare the respiratory mechanical work-load changes during the surgery of large abdominal incisional hernias and the ACS. We measured the static compliance of the entire respiratory system (Crs), and its components-lung (CL) and chest-wall (Ccw)-during the acute phase of increased abdominal pressure and after decompressive treatment. In ACS the baseline measurements of Crs, CL, Ccw were 0.034, 0.049 and 0.115 L/cmH₂0 respectively; after decompression treatment we observed a great increase of Ccw (0.167 L/cmH₂O) whereas Cl remained the same (0.O49L/cmH₂O); Crs varied from 0.034 to 0.038 L/cmH₂O. In the surgery of large laparoceles, the Crs changed from 0.048 to 0.046 and the Ccw from 0.150 to 0.180, with an unchanged Cl. We conclude that the abdominal compartment syndrome is characterized by a well-defined alteration of respiratory work-load (decrease of chest-wall compliance), and that from a mechanical point of view there is only a quantitative difference if compared to large ventral hernia repair. The decrease of chest-wall compliance in the latter is less severe and statistically different (p = 0.002).This work was presented as a poster at the AHS EHS Joint Meeting Hernia in the 21st Century, Toronto, Canada, 15 18 June 2000     

腹腔间室综合征22例临床分析

目的了解腹腔间室综合征(ACS)的发病特点和临床表现,探讨其治疗方法。方法总结2001年1月至2004年11月收治的ACS病人22例,其中男19例,女3例。重症急性胰腺炎11例,腹腔感染7例,腹膜后血肿3例,腹腔肿瘤1例。膀胱内压测定均>24cmH2O(1cmH2O=0.098kPa)。方法采用单纯保守治疗7例,采用手术治疗15例。保守治疗中采用气道开放、呼吸机支持18例,床边持续血液净化12例,B超或CT引导下腹腔穿刺引流8例。手术治疗中行剖腹探查、腹腔及腹膜后引流、切口减张缝合5例,腹腔探查引流后切口采用聚丙烯网片缝合覆盖行腹腔暂时开放10例。结果治愈17例,死亡5例。结论外科危重病人中并发ACS病死率高,及时诊断并采取有效的腹腔减压措施及联合多器官功能支持有助于改善病人预后。     

Intraabdominal hypertension/abdominal compartment syndrome after pelvic fractures: How they occur and what can be done?

BackgroundLimited data exist regarding intraabdominal hypertension/abdominal compartment syndrome (IAH/ACS) after pelvic fractures. We aimed to explore risk factors for IAH/ACS in pelvic fracture patients, assess the physiological effects of decompressive laparotomy (DL) on IAH/ACS, and generate an algorithm to manage IAH/ACS after pelvic fracture.Materials and methodsPelvic fracture patients were included based on the presence of IAH/ACS. Intraabdominal pressure (IAP) was measured through a Foley catheter. DL was performed in patients with refractory IAH or ACS. Multivariable linear regression was applied to assess associations between IAP levels (≥12 mmHg) and age, sex, injury severity score (ISS), pelvic fracture, volume of resuscitation fluids over 24 h and hemoglobin values. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test for paired samples was used to compare variables before and after DL.ResultsAmong 455 pelvic fracture patients, 44 (9.7%) and 5 (1.1%) were diagnosed with IAH and ACS, respectively. The volume of resuscitation fluids over 24 h exhibited a significant positive correlation with IAP levels (≥12 mmHg) (p = 0.002). The main findings during DL were edematous bowel (11/20) and retroperitoneal hematoma (7/20). DL caused a significant decrease in the mean IAP from 24.4 ± 8.5 mmHg to 13.4 ± 4.0 mmHg (p < 0.0001). Physiological parameters (APP, PaO2/FIO2 ratio, PIP, arterial lactate and UOP) were significantly improved after DL. The mortality rate was 15% in patients who underwent DL and 40% in ACS patients.ConclusionsIAH/ACS is common in pelvic fracture patients. The most effective method to decrease IAP in pelvic fracture patients is DL. Prophylactic DL is important for decreasing mortality as it prevents IAH from progressing to ACS. Massive fluid resuscitation is a significant risk factor for IAH/ACS. A pathway incorporating prophylactic/therapeutic DL and optimized fluid resuscitation to prevent and manage IAH/ACS after pelvic fractures may reduce morbidity and mortality.     

暴发性胰腺炎并发腹腔间隔室综合征的诊治经验

目的 探讨暴发性急性胰腺炎(FAP)并发腹腔间隔室综合征(ACS)的治疗方法.方法 2009年1月至2011年12月共收治FAP 25例,其中FAP并发ACS 18例.回顾性比较了该18例患者早期手术治疗与非手术治疗的疗效.结果 18例FAP并发ACS患者中,7例接受非手术治疗,死亡率42.9％;早期手术治疗11例,死亡率27.3％,两者之间差异有统计学意义.结论 对FAP并发ACS患者及时充分腹腔减压,能够改善各脏器功能及其血液循环.腹腔减压以手术引流的减压效果更为确定有效,可明显降低患者死亡率.     

腹腔间隔室综合征23例诊治分析

目的 探讨腹腔间隔室综合征（abdominal compartment syndrome,ACS）的病因、诊断和治疗.方法 回顾性分析鞍山市中心医院2006年1月至2013年6月收治的ACS 23例的临床资料.23例中,男性16例,女性7例;年龄35～67岁,平均45岁;未手术4例,手术治疗19例.结果 痊愈20例（86.9％）：未手术3例,术中切口一期缝合者6例,腹壁切口部分敞开4例,Proceed补片和三升袋缝合皮下筋膜7例.死亡3例（13.1％）：拒绝手术及腹主动脉瘤卒中死亡.结论 应及早诊断,及时采取腹腔减压措施.对于重症急性胰腺炎患者,如果膀胱内压大于25 mmHg时,也具有手术探查指征.ACS患者经开腹腹腔减压术后,可用暂时关腹的方法.术中给予腹壁切口部分敞开及各种暂时关腹的方法是提高治愈率的关键.     

腹腔室隔综合征的紧急治疗与预防

目的 探讨腹腔室隔综合征(ACS)的紧急处理与预防方法。方法 回顾性分析2000～2002年间经治的ACS6例的临床资料。6例中4例行急诊腹腔减压并治疗原发疾病。另2例行保守治疗。结果 行急诊手术的4例均获救治,各例经腹腔减压后各种紊乱的生理指标即时恢复正常;保守治疗的2例均死亡。结论 急诊行腹腔减压是治疗ACS的唯一的有效方法。针对各种可以导致腹内压异常升高的因素,采取相应措施可有效预防ACS的发生。     

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目的　总结重症急性胰腺炎 (SAP)并发腹腔室隔综合征 (ACS)时继发性器官功能不全的特点。方法　 1998～ 2 0 0 3年 345例SAP中 2 1例发生ACS病人 ,确诊时继发的心、肺、肾功能不全的特点 ,比较治疗前后的变化和缓解因素。结果　 2 1例 (2 3例次 )ACS病人紧随腹膨胀、腹壁紧张后出现心肺肾功能不全。表现为血压下降 ,CVP反而升高 ;PaO2 下降 ,但PaCO2 和PAP增高 ;无尿或少尿 ;液体复苏、呼吸机支持、多巴胺及速尿等保守治疗无效。 18例次行开腹减压引流术及 3L静脉营养袋暂时性关腹者中的 15例次成活者迅速逆转 ,APACHEⅡ评分由术前的 2 3 7± 13 9降至术后 6h的 13 3± 3 6 ,术后 2 4h平均尿量增至 (180 1± 6 7 8)mL/h。 5例未手术者中 4例病情进行性恶化直至死亡。结论　及时诊断ACS ,开腹充分减压和 3L袋暂时性关腹是逆转器官功能不全的关键。     

危重烧伤合并腹腔间隙综合征的临床诊治特点分析

目的总结危重烧伤合并腹腔间隙综合征(ACS)的临床诊治特点。方法2001年1月—2005年4月笔者单位收治12例特重度烧伤合并ACS的患者,其中3例予以非手术治疗(胃肠减压、肛管排气),4例行腹壁减张,5例开腹减压。统计、分析本组患者的治疗结果。予以腹壁减张或开腹减压术者,监测其术后24 h尿量、膀胱内压、中心静脉压、动脉收缩压、动脉血氧分压(PaO2),并与术前比较。结果本组患者病死率为41．7％,9例手术患者死亡3例。多数患者术前24 h尿量偏少,膀胱内压、中心静脉压、动脉收缩压和PaO2表现异常,手术患者术后各项指标较术前明显好转(P<0．01)。结论危重烧伤合并ACS的患者及时给予腹壁减张和开腹减压是治疗的关键。     

腹壁整形术后小腹腔综合征三例

目的探讨并总结腹壁整形手术后并发小腹腔综合征的防治方法，以提高腹壁整形手术的安全性。方法对2例腹壁整形术后并发小腹腔综合征患者行腹肌及其筋膜切开减压。所形成的腹壁缺损薄弱部分用人工网状材料（Mesh）修补。皮肤缺损用植皮术修补，1例症状轻微者，经指导增加腹式呼吸锻炼后缓解。结果2例经过上述方法治疗，症状消失和减轻，随访2年效果良好。结论腹壁整形手术可能并发小腹腔综合征。采用手术松解的方法可使症状缓解，并获得持久疗效。对高危人群，应采取适当的预防措施以提高手术的安全性。     

Elevated cytokine levels in peritoneal fluid from burned patients with intra-abdominal hypertension and abdominal compartment syndrome

BACKGROUND: Burn patients with intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) and abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) undergo vigorous resuscitation and accumulate peritoneal fluid (PF) that is a plasma ultra-filtrate. This study compared antithrombin (AT) and cytokine levels in burn patient plasma and peritoneal fluid (PF). METHODS: Twenty-nine patients were studied: 22 developed IAH and 9 progressed to ACS. Burn + inhalation injury was present in 22 patients; 5 had burn only and 2 had inhalation only. Sixteen patients died: of these, 9 survived less than 48 h due to the severity of their injuries. Flow cytometry utilized the Cytometric Bead Array kit for Human Th1/Th2 cytokines. AT levels were determined by the Accucolor method spectrophotometrically. RESULTS: All cytokine levels were significantly elevated in burn plasma and PF compared to normal plasma, p < 0.001. AT plasma levels were decreased compared to normal. AT and cytokines were present in peritoneal fluid of burn patients with IAH and ACS. Patients who died had decreased plasma levels of AT and increased IFN-gamma, IL-10, IL-6, IL-4, IL-2 peritoneal fluid levels compared to survivors. CONCLUSIONS: Peritoneal fluid may be a reservoir for cytokines during initial resuscitation and contributes to homeostatic perturbations in burn patients.