Ethnomedicinal,phytochemical and pharmacological updates on Peppermint (Mentha × piperita L.)—A review

Peppermint (Mentha × piperita L) is a perennial, glabrous and strongly scented herb belongs to the family Lamiaceae. It is cultivated in a temperate region of Europe, Asia, United States, India and Mediterranean countries due to their commercial value and distinct aroma. In addition to traditional food flavouring uses, M. × piperita is well recognized for their traditional use to treat fever, cold, digestive, anti‐viral, anti‐fungal and oral mucosa and throat inflammation. The scientific studies provide awareness on the use of M. × piperita for biological effects such as anti‐oxidant, anti‐microbial, anti‐viral, anti‐inflammatory, biopesticidal, larvicidal, anticancer, radioprotective effect, genotoxicity and anti‐diabetic activity have been ascribed. A wide spectrum of bioactive phytochemicals such as flavonoids, phenolics lignans and stilbenes and essential oils are expected to be responsible for the aroma effects. In this sense, this present review provides an extensive overview of the traditional medicinal, phytochemical and multiple biological activities of this “Peppermint.”     

Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.): A Potential Source of High‐Value Components for Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals‐ A Review

Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), a herbal plant, belonging to the family Apiceae, is valued for its culinary and medicinal uses. All parts of this herb are in use as flavoring agent and/or as traditional remedies for the treatment of different disorders in the folk medicine systems of different civilizations. The plant is a potential source of lipids (rich in petroselinic acid) and an essential oil (high in linalool) isolated from the seeds and the aerial parts. Due to the presence of a multitude of bioactives, a wide array of pharmacological activities have been ascribed to different parts of this herb, which include anti‐microbial, anti‐oxidant, anti‐diabetic, anxiolytic, anti‐epileptic, anti‐depressant, anti‐mutagenic, anti‐inflammatory, anti‐dyslipidemic, anti‐hypertensive, neuro‐protective and diuretic. Interestingly, coriander also possessed lead‐detoxifying potential. This review focuses on the medicinal uses, detailed phytochemistry, and the biological activities of this valuable herb to explore its potential uses as a functional food for the nutraceutical industry. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Chemical and Biological Characterization of Novel Essential Oils from Eremophila bignoniiflora (F. Muell) (Myoporaceae): A Traditional Aboriginal Australian Bush Medicine

Essential oils were extracted by hydrodistillation from the traditional Australian medicinal plant Eremophila bignoniiflora, characterized chemically and then screened for bioactivity. Characterization and quantification were completed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC‐MS) and GC‐flame ionization detection, respectively. Antimicrobial capacity was assessed using disc diffusion and micro‐titre plate broth dilution and further characterized using thin layer chromatography followed by bioautography to assign activity to separated individual active components. Antifungal capacity was investigated using micro‐titre plate broth dilution against pathogenic Trichophyton species. Free radical scavenging ability was assessed using the diphenylpicrylhydradyl reaction in methanol. The predominant components of the essential oil were fenchyl‐acetate and bornyl‐acetate. However, bioautography indicated antimicrobial ability to be largely linked to the less abundant, more polar constituents. Oils displayed only modest antifungal ability against pathogenic Trichophyton species associated with dermatophytosis, but moderate to high antimicrobial activity, particularly against the yeast Candida albicans and the bacteria Staphylococcus epidermidis. Essential oils exhibited relatively low free radical scavenging ability. Speculation over the role of essential oils in the traditional medicinal applications of E. bignoniiflora follows, exploring correlations between traditional use and investigated bioactivities. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Neuroprotective and neurochemical properties of mint extracts

Mints are aromatic plants with a tradition as medicinal remedies and culinary herbs. With the aim of investigating potential central nervous system (CNS) activities of traditional medicinal plants, four species and one hybrid of the genus Mentha (M. aquatica, M. longifolia, M. pulegium, M. suaveolens and M. × piperita) were selected. Methanolic extracts of the plants were tested for protective effects against hydrogen‐peroxide‐induced toxicity in PC12 cells, antioxidant activity (by ABTS and X/XO methods) and neurochemical properties (MAO‐A inhibition, AChE inhibition and affinity to the GABA_A receptor). Mentha × piperita and Mentha aquatica produced significant (p < 0.05) protection of the PC12 cells against oxidative stress. All the plants exhibited antioxidant and MAO‐A inhibitory activities, M. × piperita being the most active. M. aquatica showed the highest affinity to the GABA_A‐receptor assay. Results demonstrate that mints might have effect on the CNS. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Alhagi: A Plant Genus Rich in Bioactives for Pharmaceuticals

Alhagi, a plant genus from family Fabaceae, is widely distributed in many countries of Asia, Australia and Europe. Commonly known as camel thorn, Alhagi has many species famous for feed and folk medicinal uses. Different species of Alhagi such as Alhagi pseudalhagi, A. graecorum, A. sparsifolia, A. kirgisorum, A. maurorum, A. camelorum and A. persarum have been explored for their antioxidant potential and nutritive value along with various medicinal properties. A wide array of pharmacologically active secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, alkaloids (alhacidin and alhacin), steroids, pseudalhagin A, phospholipids and polysaccharides have been reported from different parts of Alhagi species. A broad range of biological activities such as antioxidant, cardiovascular, anti‐ulcer, hepatoprotective, antispasmodic, antidiarrheal, antinociceptive, antipyretic, anti‐inflammatory, anti‐rheumatic, antibacterial and antifungal have been ascribed to different parts of Alhagi. In addition, Alhagi plants are also valued as a rich source of digestible protein and important minerals. This review focuses on the medicinal applications and detailed profile of high‐value bioactive phytochemicals along with pharmacological attributes and therapeutic potential of these multi‐purpose plants. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

重楼属植物的药用价值及其化学物质基础

该文综述了延龄草科重楼属植物的传统利用及其化学物质基础。重楼属包括40个种及变种,作为药用植物使用的有18个,这些药用植物在传统利用上有相似性。目前已对14个种及变种重楼的化学成分进行了研究,报道了207个化合物,其中甾体皂苷121个。甾体皂苷是重楼属植物的主要活性成分,很好地解释了其在治疗癌症、疔、疮、出血、胃炎等疾病上的利用。由于它们在药用功能、化学成分等方面的相似性,重楼属植物在资源相互替代上具有可行性。在重楼属化学成分、药理活性、生物学特性、毒理学等方面,还值得深入研究。     

A Pharmacological Review of Bioactive Constituents of Paeonia lactiflora Pallas and Paeonia veitchii Lynch

The roots of two peony species, Paeonia lactiflora Pallas and Paeonia veitchii Lynch are routinely referred to as either chishao (赤芍) or baishao (白芍). This paper reviews the botanical origins and traditional medicinal usage of each species, as well as pharmacological like activity of their constituents. A search of herbal pharmacological encyclopaedia, PubChem and PubMed databases identified their known constituents. The biological data for these constituents were evaluated and classified according to pharmacological‐like activity, with emphasis on compounds of greatest concentration and bioavailability. It was found that P. lactiflora and P. veitchii have some common compounds; however, their phytochemical bioavailability varies. Furthermore, a larger number of compounds have been identified in P. lactiflora. These have greater potential for antiinflammatory, antiviral, antibacterial and antioxidant therapeutic activity compared with P. veitchii. However, evidence indicates both species are similarly indicated for antiviral and glycaemic activity. Major compounds of each are classified as flavonoids, hydrolysable tannins (polyphenols) and monoterpene glycosides. The evidence suggests both species, when administered in entire botanical form, have an excellent safety profile; however, constituent toxicity risk evidence is limited, requiring further investigation. Although experiments show many compounds have biological activity, further investigation of their therapeutic potential is needed. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Rhus chinensis and Galla Chinensis – folklore to modern evidence: review

The species Rhus chinensis Mill. (Anacardiaceae) is an important representative of the genus Rhus, which contains over 250 individual species found in temperate and tropical regions worldwide. Rhus chinensis has long been used by folk medicine practitioners in Asia. Leaves, roots, stem, bark, fruit and particularly the galls on Rhus chinensis leaves, Galla chinensis, are recognized to have preventative and therapeutic effects on different ailments (such as diarrhea, dysentery, rectal and intestinal cancer, diabetes mellitus, sepsis, oral diseases and inflammation). However, it is critical to separate evidence from anecdote. Fortunately, recent scientific research has revealed that Rhus chinensis compounds possess strong antiviral, antibacterial, anticancer, hepatoprotective, antidiarrheal and antioxidant activities. Moreover, compounds isolated from the stem of Rhus chinensis significantly suppressed HIV‐1 activity in vitro. Compounds from this plant were also found to inhibit enamel demineralization in vitro and enhance remineralization of dental enamel with fluoride. This review highlights claims from traditional and tribal medicinal lore and makes a contemporary summary of phytochemical, biological and pharmacological findings on this plant material. It aims to show that the pharmaceutical potential of this plant deserves closer attention. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of Athamanta turbith fruit essential oils on CCl4‐induced hepatic failure in mice and their antioxidant properties

The effects of essential oils isolated from mature fruits of Athamanta turbith ssp. hungarica (Borbás) Tutin and A. turbith ssp. haynaldii (Borbás & Uechtr.) Tutin (Umbelliferae) on some liver biochemical parameters in mice intoxicated with carbon tetrachloride were investigated. Pretreatment with both essential oils extenuated the effects caused by carbon tetrachloride. In order to investigate in vitro antioxidant properties of the oils, three methods were applied: scavenging of both 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and OH radicals, as well as a test of inhibition of Fe²⁺/ascorbic‐induced lipid peroxidation. Investigated essential oils exhibited modest antioxidant capacity. Therefore, their influence on biochemical parameters in intoxicated animals might be linked to the inhibition of enzymes (cytochrome P450 2E1) involved in metabolic activation of halomethanes. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pharmacological and chemical features of Nepeta L. genus: Its importance as a therapeutic agent

Medicinal plants have always had great value for the human population due to their valuable constituents and potential bioactivities. The objective of this review is to present an updated overview of an important medicinal plant genus Nepeta L., from the family Lamiaceae, revealing its traditional utilization, biological activity, phytoconstituents, and mechanisms of action. For this purpose, a literature survey was carried out by using SciFinder, ScienceDirect, Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science followed by a revision of the bibliographies of the related articles. We have described and analyzed the role of plants in drug discovery and the importance of Nepeta species. Information on the utilization purposes of Nepeta species in folk medicine has been emphasized, and scientific studies on the biological effects and secondary metabolites are addressed. Nepeta species are characterized by terpenoid‐type compounds and phenolic constituents, which exert several activities such as an antimicrobial, repellent against major pathogen vector mosquitoes, insecticide, larvicide against Anopheles stephensi, cytotoxic anticarcinogen, antioxidant, anticonvulsant, analgesic, anti‐inflammatory agent, and antidepressant, revealing its importance in medicinal and agricultural fields. On the basis of numerous studies, the Nepeta genus demonstrates remarkable therapeutic effects against various diseases. However, clinical studies are warranted to confirm preclinical findings.     

Carvacrol and human health: A comprehensive review

Carvacrol (CV) is a phenolic monoterpenoid found in essential oils of oregano (Origanum vulgare), thyme (Thymus vulgaris), pepperwort (Lepidium flavum), wild bergamot (Citrus aurantium bergamia), and other plants. Carvacrol possesses a wide range of bioactivities putatively useful for clinical applications such antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities. Carvacrol antimicrobial activity is higher than that of other volatile compounds present in essential oils due to the presence of the free hydroxyl group, hydrophobicity, and the phenol moiety. The present review illustrates the state‐of‐the‐art studies on the antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties of CV. It is particularly effective against food‐borne pathogens, including Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Bacillus cereus. Carvacrol has high antioxidant activity and has been successfully used, mainly associated with thymol, as dietary phytoadditive to improve animal antioxidant status. The anticancer properties of CV have been reported in preclinical models of breast, liver, and lung carcinomas, acting on proapoptotic processes. Besides the interesting properties of CV and the toxicological profile becoming definite, to date, human trials on CV are still lacking, and this largely impedes any conclusions of clinical relevance.     

The Genus Trollius—Review of Pharmacological and Chemical Research

Three species of the genus Trollius (Ranunculaceae) are traditionally used to treat upper respiratory tract infections, pharyngitis, tonsillitis, bronchitis, cold with fever, acute tympanitis, aphthae, mouth sore, hemorrhage and pain of gums, acute lymphangitis and acute periostitis. However, only a few studies support its traditional use. These are studies of the biological activity of extracts and/or compounds of selected species of Trollius, but there are no clinical studies proving the effectiveness or possible toxic effects. Until now, the following activity of extracts and/or compounds from certain species of Trollius used in traditional medicine has been proven: antiviral, antibacterial, antiinflammatory and antioxidant. The review showed that flavonoids, mainly C‐glycosides, were characteristic of the species Trollius. Furthermore, other main groups of compounds are carotenoids, organic acids, terpenes, alkaloids, sterols, lactones and carbohydrates. The essential oil mainly contains compounds from the group of benzenoids, nitrogen‐containing compounds, monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids, irregular terpenes and macrocyclic epoxide. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Plants of the Melaleuca Genus as Antimicrobial Agents: From Farm to Pharmacy

Plants belonging to Melaleuca genus (Myrtaceae family) are native to Oceania, where they have been used for ages by Aborigine people in Australian traditional medicine, mainly because of their broad‐spectrum antimicrobial activity. Although, M. linariifolia, M. dissitiflora, and other species of Melaleuca can also be used, the tea tree oil, an essential oil obtained from M. alternifolia shows the longest history of medicinal uses. Tea tree oil contains for the 80–90% several monoterpenes (terpinen‐4‐ol, α‐terpinene, 1,8‐cineol, p‐cymene, α‐terpineol, α‐pinene, terpinolene, limonene, and sabinene). Sesquiterpenes and aromatic compounds further compose this oil. The essential oil of Melaleuca spp. has been reported to possess effective antibacterial and antifungal properties in vitro. In particular, data show that 1,8‐cineol, terpinen‐4‐ol and methyl eugenol play the key role in mediating this oil's antimicrobial activity. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dittany of Crete: A botanical and ethnopharmacological review

Origanum dictamnus (Lamiaceae family), an endemic plant of the Greek island of Crete, is widely used as a traditional medicine since antiquity, all over Europe. The aim of the present review is to present comprehensive information of the plant's botanical taxonomy and morphology, as well as of the chemical constituents, biological and pharmacological research on O. dictamnus, which will be presented and critically evaluated. The paper also highlights particularly interesting aspects and common medicinal uses not previously described in the specific ethnobotanical literature. An increasing number of chemical and pharmacological studies have been reported recently, some of which strongly support its traditional medicinal uses against various illnesses such as sore throat, cough and gastric ulcer. A variety of compounds, including flavonoids, lipids and terpenoids (mainly carvacrol and thymol) have been identified from the plant. Current studies have showed that the extracts, the essential oil, as well as their active principles possess several pharmacological properties, like antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-ulcer ones. The recent scientific data and the rich historical evidence of its medicinal uses could support further research as well as its use as a safe herbal medicinal product.     

Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad (bitter apple fruit): A review of its phytochemistry,pharmacology, traditional uses and nutritional potential

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad is a valuable cucurbit plant, widely distributed in the desert areas of the world. Citrullus colocynthis fruits are usually recognized for its wide range of medicinal uses as well as pharmaceutical and nutraceutical potential. This review aims to appraise the published information on the ethnobotanical knowledge, phytochemistry, ethnopharmacology, nutraceutical potential and safety studies of Citrullus colocynthis (bitter apple) fruit, with critical analysis on the gaps and potential for future studies.

Material and methods

A literature survey was performed by searching the scientific databases including PubMed, Scopus, SciFinder, Google Scholar, Web of Science, ACS as well as published books.

Results

The plant has been reported to possess a wide range of traditional medicinal uses including in diabetes, leprosy, common cold, cough, asthma, bronchitis, jaundice, joint pain, cancer, toothache, wound, mastitis, and in gastrointestinal disorders such as indigestion, constipation, dysentery, gastroenteritis, colic pain and different microbial infections. Several bioactive chemical constituents from fruits were recorded, such as, glycosides, flavonoids, alkaloids, fatty acids and essential oils. The isolation and identification of curcurbitacins A, B, C, D, E, I, J, K, and L and Colocynthosides A, and B were also reported. The fruit of Citrullus colocynthis has been studied extensively for its wide range of biological activities, which include antioxidant, cytotoxic, antidiabetic, antilipidemic, insecticide, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory. The plant was also shown to be rich in nutritional value with high protein contents and important minerals as well as edible quality of seed oil.

Conclusion

It is evident from the literature that Citrullus colocynthis possesses a wide range of medicinal uses and has been well studied for its antidiabetic, anticancer, antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities, while its therapeutic potential for gut, airways and cardiovascular disorders remains to be explored. Critical analysis revealed that the plant has the huge potential for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical application, with some indications for the presence of synergistic and /or side effects neutralizing combinations of activities.     

In vitro antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of anthrone and chromone from the latex of Aloe harlana Reynolds

In the search for new antimicrobial and antioxidant compounds from plants, the latex of the medicinal plant Aloe harlana Reynolds from Ethiopia was subjected to bioassay‐guided fractionation, which led to the isolation of two known compounds, anthrone (aloin) and chromone (7‐O‐methylaloeresin A). The latex and its two constituents were assessed for their possible antimicrobial activities against 23 bacterial and four fungal strains using the disc diffusion method and their antioxidant activity by two complementary test systems, namely 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2‐deoxyribose degradation assay methods. The isolated compounds showed promising results against various pathogenic bacterial and fungal strains in comparison with standard drugs. Moreover, 7‐O‐methylaloeresin A exhibited good activity against multiple drug resistant Staphylococcus aureus (NCTC 11994) and Salmonella typhimurium (ATCC 1255) with MIC values of 0.72 and 0.18 mm , respectively. Among the fungal strains tested, Candida albicans (ATCC 10231) was the most susceptible organism to the latex and the two isolated compounds. The latex and isolated compounds also showed significant activities on both antioxidant assays with the highest activity being observed for 7‐O‐methylaloeresin A, which gave IC₅₀ values of 0.026 mm and 0.021 mm for DPPH and 2‐deoxyribose degradation assay, respectively. These findings support the traditional uses of the plant for the treatment of various infectious and inflammatory diseases. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

β‐Bisabolene,a Sesquiterpene from the Essential Oil Extract of Opoponax (Commiphora guidottii), Exhibits Cytotoxicity in Breast Cancer Cell Lines

The essential oils from Commiphora species have for centuries been recognized to possess medicinal properties. Here, we performed gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry on the essential oil from opoponax (Commiphora guidotti) and identified bisabolene isomers as the main constituents of this essential oil. Opoponax essential oil, a chemical component; β‐bisabolene and an alcoholic analogue, α‐bisabolol, were tested for their ability to selectively kill breast cancer cells. Only β‐bisabolene, a sesquiterpene constituting 5% of the essential oil, exhibited selective cytotoxic activity for mouse cells (IC₅₀ in normal Eph4: >200 µg/ml, MG1361: 65.49 µg/ml, 4T1: 48.99 µg/ml) and human breast cancer cells (IC₅₀ in normal MCF‐10A: 114.3 µg/ml, MCF‐7: 66.91 µg/ml, MDA‐MB‐231: 98.39 µg/ml, SKBR3: 70.62 µg/ml and BT474: 74.3 µg/ml). This loss of viability was because of the induction of apoptosis as shown by Annexin V‐propidium iodide and caspase‐3/7 activity assay. β‐bisabolene was also effective in reducing the growth of transplanted 4T1 mammary tumours in vivo (37.5% reduction in volume by endpoint). In summary, we have identified an anti‐cancer agent from the essential oil of opoponax that exhibits specific cytotoxicity to both human and murine mammary tumour cells in vitro and in vivo, and this warrants further investigation into the use of β‐bisabolene in the treatment of breast cancers. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Anti‐Schistosoma mansoni effects of essential oils and their components

Schistosoma mansoni is endemic in 55 countries around the world. S. mansoni is a water‐borne parasite of humans belonging to the group of blood flukes. Generally, schistosomiasis is treated with praziquantel, which results in frequent treatment failures and reinfections. Essential oils have diverse biological effects, including antimicrobial, antiprotozoal and antiparasitic. This review aimed at summarizing available in vitro, in vivo and clinical trials showing evidence and mechanisms of actions of essential oils and their derivatives acting against S. mansoni. The findings suggest that a number of essential oils and/or their components act against S. mansoni. Essential oils and/or their derivatives may be one of the potential sources of antischistosomal drugs.     

The genus Tulbaghia (Alliaceae)—A review of its ethnobotany,pharmacology, phytochemistry and conservation needs

Ethnopharmacological relevance

Tulbaghia is a monocotyledonous genus of herbaceous perennial bulbs predominantly found in Africa. The approximately 63 species have nutritive, ornamental and medicinal value. For centuries, several Tulbaghia species have found diverse uses in traditional medicine.

Aim of the review

To evaluate and document the uses, especially the medicinal value of the genus Tulbaghia. The existing gaps in knowledge and possible means for greater development are highlighted.

Methods

A comprehensive and detailed literature search using electronic search (for example, Google Scholar, Scirus and Web of Science) and ethnobotanical books was conducted.

Results

Findings based on their traditional uses and scientific evaluation indicates that Tulbaghia violacea remain the most widely used species. Compiled data indicate their efficacy in several in vitro and in vivo pharmacological properties such as antimicrobial, anti-hypertensive, antioxidant and anti-cancer activities. Some phytochemicals which are partly associated with the exhibited bioactivities have been identified and isolated from Tulbaghia violacea and Tulbaghia alliacea. The increasing high usage especially the underground organs, as well as the incessant reliance on the wild population, will eventually affect their abundance and possibly make them susceptible to extinction.

Conclusions

The great potential of the genus Tulbaghia, particularly other less popular species, remain to be exploited. Further studies on the structural activity relationship of some of the isolated compound may improve their biological potency. Their characteristic alliaceous aroma may also be of great interest to the food industry seeking novel source of unusual aromas to satisfy increasing consumer demands. In order to derive the much anticipated benefits from the species without compromising their conservation status, the use of different biotechnological approaches highlighted in this review will certainly guarantee their continuous availability.     

Promising in vitro antioxidant,anti‐acetylcholinesterase and neuroactive effects of essential oil from two non‐psychotropic Cannabis sativa L. biotypes

The aim of this study was to compare the micro‐morphological features of two different non‐drug Cannabis sativa L. biotypes (Chinese accession G‐309 and one fibrante variety) and to evaluate the phytochemical profile as well as some biological properties of the essential oils (EOs) obtained by hydrodistillation of dried flowering tops. After a micro‐morphological evaluation by scanning electron microscopy, the phytochemical composition was analysed by GC–FID and GC–MS analyses. Antioxidant and anti‐acetylcholinesterase properties were investigated by several in vitro cell‐free assays, while neuroactive effects were evaluated on mouse cortical neuronal as well as human iPS cell‐derived central nervous system cells grown on MEA chips. Both EOs showed strong antioxidant properties mainly attributable to the high content of hydroxylated compounds as well as significant anti‐acetylcholinesterase activities (IC₅₀ 74.64 and 57.31 μg/ml for Chinese accession and fibrante variety, respectively). Furthermore, they showed a concentration‐dependent inhibition of spontaneous electrical activity of human and mouse neuronal networks, with the fibrante variety, which showed the best activity (MFR, IC₅₀ 0.71 and 10.60 μg/ml, respectively). The observed biological activities could be due to a synergic effect between terpenes and phytocannabinoids, although in vivo studies, which clarify the molecular mechanism, are still lacking.