Acute respiratory distress syndrome in children with acute iron poisoning: the role of intravenous desferrioxamine

The acute respiratory distress syndrome is a rare but potentially fatal complication of severe acute iron poisoning and its pathogenesis has been linked with direct and indirect iron toxicity as well as the use of the chelator drug desferrioxamine. We report a case of severe acute respiratory decompensation in a child treated according to the current protocol for chelation therapy and discuss its implications. Conclusion We believe that the efficacy and safety of chelation therapy in severe acute iron poisoning may be improved by targeting the initial high levels of readily chelatable serum iron with adequate doses of desferrioxamine without prolonging its use unnecessarily. Received: 18 December 1998 / Accepted: 2 June 1999     

Iron poisoning: a literature-based review of epidemiology, diagnosis, and management

Although seen less frequently than acetaminophen or salicylate poisoning, acute iron poisoning remains a dangerous threat, particularly to pediatric patients. Multiple factors-including legal and manufacturing practices-have changed the landscape of iron poisoning over the decades. Despite these changes, diagnosis and management of iron poisoning have minimally evolved, and the current evidence for iron poisoning is yet based principally on case series, expert consensus, animal studies, and adult volunteer studies. This review article describes in detail the epidemiology of acute iron poisoning as it relates to the pediatric patient, as well as the historical and current array of literature on diagnosis and management.     

Acute iron ingestion

OBJECTIVE: Intoxication is one of the most common causes of admissions to emergency department in pediatric age group. Incidence of iron poisoning gradually increased because of wide spread use of iron containing drugs. METHOD: In this report, we present five cases of iron ingestion who were admitted to our emergency department within a year. RESULT: Whole bowel irrigation in addition to gastric lavage with an iron dose of over 50 mg/kg as well as deferoxamine treatment for patients in whom clinical and laboratory indications are present. CONCLUSION: The prompt recognition and treatment of children with acute iron poisoning is the single and the most critical point for decreasing the morbidity and mortality associated with iron containing products.     

Iron: not a benign therapeutic drug

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This article reviews the pathophysiology and clinical presentation of iron poisoning. Recently proposed guidelines for triage of children with iron ingestion will be discussed as well as diagnostic and treatment modalities. Finally, the potential impact of unit-dose packaging as a primary preventative measure will be discussed. RECENT FINDINGS: Carbonyl iron has a greater safety margin than the iron salts. There have been no published reports of serious or fatal poisoning from the ingestion of carbonyl iron products. Evidence-based consensus guidelines have determined that the threshold for referral to a healthcare facility is 40 mg/kg of elemental iron in the form of adult iron formulations. Unit-dose packaging of iron preparations appeared to decrease the number of exposures to iron and deaths in the United States during the period they were instituted. SUMMARY: Iron poisoning remains primarily a clinical diagnosis, although certain laboratory and radiological testing may provide helpful evidence to guide evaluation and management. Primary prevention is the best modality for decreasing morbidity and mortality for all poisonings including iron.     

Acute iron ingestion

Objective : Intoxication is one of the most common causes of admissions to emergency department in pediatric age group. Incidence of iron poisoning gradually increased because of wide spread use of iron containing drugs.Method : In this report, we present five cases of iron ingestion who were admitted to our emergency department within a year.Result : Whole bowel irrigation in addition to gastric lavage with an iron dose of over 50mg/kg as well as deferoxamine treatment for patients in whom clinical and laboratory indications are present.Conclusion : The prompt recognition and treatment of children with acute iron poisoning is the single and the most critical point for decreasing the morbidity and mortality associated with iron containing products.     

The total iron-binding capacity in iron poisoning. Is it useful?

Traditionally, a serum iron concentration in excess of the total iron-binding capacity (TIBC) is considered as an indication for deferoxamine therapy in acute iron poisoning. We observed a reversible elevation of the TIBC in patients with iron poisoning that coincided with their acute hyperferremia and have hypothesized that this is a laboratory aberration. We tested this hypothesis in vitro and found that the addition of iron to test serum samples produced a related increase in the TIBC, and alteration of the assay by providing additional adsorbent prevented this occurrence. We also evaluated the reproducibility of the TIBC as performed by 500 laboratories on 10 different reference samples. The mean coefficient of variation was 16%, which was unsatisfactory. We concluded that the TIBC should not be used in the decision for the initiation of deferoxamine therapy in acute iron poisoning. Furthermore, high TIBC values that are occasionally seen in patients with iron poisoning should not be considered as providing a protective effect.     

Carboxyatractyloside poisoning in humans

OBJECTIVE: Cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) is an herbaceous annual plant with worldwide distribution. The seeds contain the glycoside carboxyatractyloside, which is highly toxic to animals. We describe nine cases of carboxyatractyloside poisoning in humans which, to our knowledge, has not previously been reported. The clinical, laboratory and histopathological findings and our therapeutic approach are also discussed. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The patients presented with acute onset abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting, drowsiness, palpitations, sweating and dyspnoea. Three of them developed convulsions followed by loss of consciousness and death. RESULTS: Laboratory findings showed raised liver enzymes, indicating severe hepatocellular damage. BUN and creatinine levels were raised, especially in the fatal cases who also displayed findings of consumption coagulopathy. CPK-MB values indicative of myocardial injury were also raised, especially in the fatal cases. Three of the patients died within 48 hours of ingesting carboxyatractyloside. Post-mortem histopathology of the liver confirmed centrilobular hepatic necrosis and renal proximal tubular necrosis, secondary changes owing to increased permeability and microvascular haemorrhage in the cerebrum and cerebellum, and leucocytic infiltrates in the muscles and various organs including pancreas, lungs and myocardium. CONCLUSIONS: Carboxyatractyloside poisoning causes multiple organ dysfunction and can be fatal. Coagulation abnormalities, hyponatraemia, marked hypoglycaemia, icterus and hepatic and renal failure are signs of a poor prognosis. No antidote is available and supportive therapy is the mainstay of treatment.     

Acute isoniazid neurotoxicity in childhood

Acute isoniazid (INH) poisoning is uncommon in children. Although most physicians are aware of INH hepatotoxicity, acute INH poisoning and its treatment are not well recognized. INH is increasingly being used to control the spread of tuberculosis, and physicians should know its potentially fatal effects. INH overdose is known to result in rapid onset of seizures, metabolic acidosis and prolonged obtundation. We report two cases of obtundation secondary to INH overdose that was immediately reversed by pyridoxine. Parenteral pyridoxine administration is an effective method in INH intoxication. The intravenous form of pyridoxine must be available in the emergency care units, and INH toxicity should be suspected in any patient with refractory seizures and metabolic acidosis.     

Deaths from Acute Lead Poisoning

The three fatal cases of acute lead poisoning described show the difficulty experienced in reaching an early diagnosis of lead intoxication. A rapid micromethod is now available for the determination of whole blood lead levels on small samples of blood, using atomic absorption spectrophotometry.     

Iron Deposition in Duodenal Mucosa; a Review and Report of Three Cases in Pediatric Age Group

Background

Ferrous sulfate drops are routinely used in Iran in infants older than 6 months of age. Effect of ferrous sulfate drops in preventive or therapeutic doses on gastrointestinal mucosa of infants is not studied as yet. Upper gastrointestinal complications due to acute iron poisoning are well known in this age group. In this article, we reviewed published articles on iron deposition in upper gastro-intestinal tract and also introduce clinical, endoscopic and histological findings in three cases with iron deposition in duodenal mucosa.

Cases Presentation

We encountered three cases of iron deposition in duodenal mucosa among about 8000 biopsies during a 10 year period which is a very low incidence despite routine use of iron supplement in children above 6 months of age in this country. One of our cases suffered from steatorrhea and another from failure to thrive, which raises concern about effects of iron deposition in small intestine.

Conclusion

The clinical significance and effects of iron deposition in pediatric age group is yet to be elucidated. Iron deposition as a solitary finding is not reported in duodenal biopsies of infants as yet. Since iron supplement is widely used in this age group, it is justified to consider its deposition and possible effects on absorption.     

Iron poisoning: assessment of radiography in diagnosis and management.

Severe acute iron poisoning developed in a 1 1/2-year-old child who had eaten an iron preparation that resembles a popular chocolate candy. Tablets containing iron, with and without vitamins, and the sugar-coated candy of similar appearance, were radiographed with human gastric juice in vitro. Times of dissolution of the radiopaque tablets were noted, to assess the value of abdominal radiographs in the diagnosis and management of acute iron poisoning.     

A PHARMACOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION OF ACUTE IRON POISONING AND ITS TREATMENT

Acute iron poisoning is one of the commoner causes of death in childhood from accidental overdose of therapeutic agents (Westlin, 1966) This investigation was undertaken to establish some of the important factors in the toxicity of iron salts and in the treatment of acute iron poisoning.     

586例急性中毒住院患儿临床特征分析

目的对急性中毒住院患儿的临床特征进行分析,为儿童急性中毒的预防和治疗提供参考。方法回顾性分析重庆医科大学附属儿童医院2006年1月至2015年12月出院并确诊为中毒的586例住院患儿的临床资料。结果 586例患儿中,男354例,女232例;年龄24 d至15.8岁;婴幼儿和学龄前期患儿450例(76.8%);农村患儿463例(79.0%);意外中毒551例(94.0%)。药物、农药、鼠药中毒分别221例(37.7%)、167例(28.5%)和175例(29.9%)。中毒物质在城市和农村患儿的分布差异有统计学意义(P0.01),其中城市中毒患儿以药物为主要中毒物质,农村患儿中农药中毒所占比例最高。药物、农药、鼠药中毒患儿的主要临床表现差异有统计学意义(P0.01),分别以神经系统、消化系统、循环系统症状为主;不同物质中毒患儿治疗总有效率差异无统计学意义。结论儿童急性中毒主要发生在婴幼儿和学龄前儿童;多发生在农村;多为意外中毒;药物中毒是造成急性中毒的主要原因;不同物质所致中毒患儿主要的临床表现不同,但临床治疗的总有效率无明显差异。     

儿童急性中毒临床分析（附521例报告）

目的　研究儿童急性中毒的临床特征,以期寻求有效预防措施。方法　回顾性分析2012年1月至2017年1月西安市儿童医院消化科收治的因急性中毒住院的521例患儿的临床资料。结果　521例患儿中男性291例（55.9%）,女性230例（44.1%）;幼儿期257例（49.3%）,学龄前期147例（28.2%）;中毒地点在家中为508例（97.5%）,农村431例（82.7%）;中毒时间在夏季187例（35.9%）;中毒途径以消化道中毒为492例（94.4%）;及时治疗后,儿童急性中毒多数预后良好。结论　儿童急性中毒主要发生在婴幼儿和学龄前儿童;多发生在农村,夏季高发,以消化道中毒为主。     

Perinatal hemochromatosis

Perinatal hemochromatosis (PHC) is a rare disorder presumably autosomal recessive, responsible for foetal death or severe liver failure during the neonatal period. It is fatal in nearly all cases. Diagnosis relies on histologic examination, generally post mortem, which shows numerous iron deposits in the liver as well as other organs (pancreas, heart, thyroid...). The study of iron and of its ligands may have a diagnostic interest. The authors report 2 cases of PHC in one family, of whom one concerned child presented with biological signs evoking PHC on foetal blood at 31 weeks of pregnancy.     

Unit-dose packaging of iron supplements and reduction of iron poisoning in young children

BACKGROUND: Iron poisoning is a major cause of unintentional poisoning death in young children. The US Food and Drug Administration proclaimed a regulation for unit-dose packaging of iron supplements in 1997. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the requirement for unit-dose packaging of iron supplements decreases the incidence of iron ingestion and the incidence of deaths due to iron poisoning in children younger than 6 years. METHODS: This is a preintervention-postintervention study of the US federally mandated requirement for unit-dose packaging of iron supplements. The 10 years prior to the intervention were compared with the 5 years after its promulgation. The incidences of iron ingestion and of iron poisoning deaths for children younger than 6 years were obtained from the annual reports of the American Association of Poison Control Centers (Washington, DC). RESULTS: The average number of iron ingestion calls per 1000 of all calls to poison control centers regarding children younger than 6 years decreased from 2.99 per 1000 to 1.91 per 1000 (odds ratio, 1.29 [95% confidence interval, 1.27-1.32]; P<.001). The number of deaths decreased from 29 to 1 (odds ratio, 13.56 [95% confidence interval, 1.85-99.52]; P = .03). CONCLUSIONS: These are the first data that show a decrease in the incidence of nonintentional ingestion of a specific drug by young children and a decrease in mortality from poisoning by this drug after the introduction of unit-dose packaging. There was a decrease in the incidence of iron ingestion and a dramatic decrease in the number of deaths due to iron poisoning. This validates unit-dose packaging as an effective strategy for the prevention of iron poisoning and iron poisoning deaths in young children. This highly effective intervention should be considered for other medications with a high hazard for morbidity and mortality when taken as an overdose.     

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??Objective??To explore the clinical features of acute poisoning in children to search for effective preventive measures. Methods??A total of 521 cases of acute poisoning in Xi’an Children’s Hospital from January 2012 to January 2017 were collected and all clinical data were retrospectively analyzed. Results??Among the 521 cases of acute poisoning??291 cases??55.9%?? were boys??and 230 were girls??44.1%??. Acute poisoning occured in all ages of children and children in infancy period and pre-school period were more susceptible??257 cases and 147 cases???? poisoning occured mostly at home??508 cases?? accounting for 97.5%???? and in the countryside??431cases?? 82.7%???? the most common season was summer??187cases??35.9%??. The intoxication from digestive tract was the most common in all intoxicated pathways ??492 cases??94.4%??. After timely and reasonable treatment??most children had a good prognosis. Conclusion??Acute poisoning is most common in infants and preschool children. The majority of the patients are from rural areas. The most common season is summer. The most common intoxication is digestive tract.     

Acute iron poisoning: clinical picture, intensive care needs and outcome

In this retrospective study, we examined the prevalence of acute iron poisoning among children attending Pediatric Emergency service of a teaching hospital, and studied their clinical profile, treatment and outcome to define intensive care needs. During the 5 years' study period of 27125 patient visits to Pediatric Emergency, 337 (1.2%) were for accidental poisoning. Of these 21(7%) patients had iron poisoning; 18 were transferred to PICU. Three patients were asymptomatic, others had vomiting (n =15, 83%), diarrhoea (n =13, 72%), malena (n = 8, 44%), and hemetemesis (n=6, 33%) generally within 6 hours of ingestion. Nine progressed to shock and/or impaired consciousness; two had acute liver failure. Dose of ingested iron and clinical signs were most useful guide to iron toxicity and management decisions; serum iron did not help. Gastric lavage yielded fragments of iron tablets in 10 patients. On desferrioxamine infusion Vin-rose colour urine was not seen in 31% even in presence of high serum iron. Shock responded to normal saline (33 +/- 15 mL/kg) and dopamine (10 +/- 4 microg/kg/min) within 4-24 hours in 7 of 9 patients. Presence of shock or acute liver failure with coagulopathy and/or severe acidosis predicted all the four deaths. Desferrioxamine infusion and supportive care of shock was the mainstay.     

小儿急性中毒的特点和诊治进展

儿童急性中毒的发生与周围环境密切相关.我国儿童急性中毒以农药、药物和灭鼠药为主,主要因误服误食所致,重症急性中毒的病死率仍较高.加强对药物和上述毒物的管理,可以从源头减少中毒机会.对疑似中毒的患儿,除详细询问病史和查体外,多数情况下毒物鉴定是明确有元中毒和病情严重程度最直接、客观的方法.及时诊断、合理使用解毒药物、普及血液净化治疗技术、重视支持疗法是成功救治的关键.准确而全面的临床流行病学资料有助于对地区性、年龄阶段性及不同性别的中毒起到警示作用.     

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??Unintentional injuries and acute poisoning are leading causes of disability and morality in children.The main type of unintentional injuries in children include falls??traffic accident??foreign body injury??drowning and acute poisoning. Severe patients often suffer from acute hypoxic-ischemic brain damage??which causes a series of neurological deficits??such as disorders of consciousness??physical and cognitive deficits??and dysphagia. Early rehabilitation is benefical for minimizing sequelae of the primary injury??preventing secondary injury and complications??promoting rapid rehabilitation and maximizing positive outcomes. The manegement of consciousness disturbance and various neurological dysfunction is the most important in early rehabilitation.