The current burden of diabetic foot disease

Neuropathy and ischaemia are two great pathologies of the diabetic foot which lead to the characteristic features of foot ulceration (neuropathic and ischaemic) and Charcot neuroarthropathy. These can be complicated by infection and eventually may result in amputation (minor or major) and increased mortality. All of these features contribute to considerable clinical and economic burden.Peripheral nerves in the lower limbs are susceptible to different types of damage in patients with diabetes leading to distinctive syndromes. These include symmetrical sensory neuropathy associated with autonomic neuropathy, which advances gradually, and acutely painful neuropathies and mononeuropathies which have a rather acute presentation but usually recover. Ischaemia in the form of peripheral arterial disease is an important contributor to the burden of the diabetic foot. The incidence of atherosclerotic disease is raised in patients with diabetes and its natural history is accelerated. Diabetes causes severe and diffuse disease below-the knee. The lifetime risk of developing a diabetic foot ulcer is between 19% and 34%. Recurrence is common after initial healing; approximately 40% of patients have a recurrence within 1 year after ulcer healing, almost 60% within 3 years, and 65% within 5 years. Charcot neuroarthropathy is characterised by bone and joint destruction on the background of a neuropathy. Its prevalence in diabetes varies from 0.1% to 8%.Infection develops in 50%–60% of ulcers and is the principal pathology that damages diabetic feet. Approximately 20% of moderate or severe diabetic foot infections result in lower extremity amputations. The incidence of osteomyelitis is about 20% of diabetic foot ulcers.Every 20 s a lower limb is amputated due to complications of diabetes. Of all the lower extremity amputations in persons with diabetes, 85% are preceded by a foot ulcer. The mortality at 5 years for an individual with a diabetic foot ulcer is 2.5 times as high as the risk for an individual with diabetes who does not have a foot ulcer. The economic burden exacted on health care systems is considerable and includes direct and indirect costs, with loss of personal earnings and burden to carers. The diabetic foot is a significant contributor to the global burden of disability and reduces the quality of life. It remains a considerable public health problem.     

Diabetic foot infections: stepwise medical and surgical management

Foot complications are common among diabetic patients; foot ulcers are among the more serious consequences. These ulcers frequently become infected, with potentially disastrous progression to deeper spaces and tissues. If not treated promptly and appropriately, diabetic foot infections can become incurable or even lead to septic gangrene, which may require foot amputation. Diagnosing infection in a diabetic foot ulcer is based on clinical signs and symptoms of inflammation. Properly culturing an infected lesion can disclose the pathogens and provide their antibiotic susceptibilities. Specimens for culture should be obtained after wound debridement to avoid contamination and optimise identification of pathogens. Staphylococcus aureus is the most common isolate in these infections; the increasing incidence of methicillin-resistant S. aureus over the past two decades has further complicated antibiotic treatment. While chronic infections are often polymicrobial, many acute infections in patients not previously treated with antibiotics are caused by a single pathogen, usually a gram-positive coccus. We offer a stepwise approach to treating diabetic foot infections. Most patients must first be medically stabilised and any metabolic aberrations should be addressed. Antibiotic therapy is not required for uninfected wounds but should be carefully selected for all infected lesions. Initial therapy is usually empirical but may be modified according to the culture and sensitivity results and the patient's clinical response. Surgical intervention is usually required in cases of retained purulence or advancing infection despite optimal medical therapy. Possible additional indications for surgical procedures include incision and drainage of an abscess, debridement of necrotic material, removal of any foreign bodies, arterial revascularisation and, when needed, amputation. Most foot ulcers occur on the plantar surface of the foot, thus requiring a plantar incision for any drainage procedure.     

An evidence based narrative review on treatment of diabetic foot osteomyelitis

ObjectiveThe diagnosis of diabetic food infection is usually clinical, and its severity is related to location and depth of the lesion, and the presence of necrosis or gangrene. Osteomyelitis of the foot and ankle can be extremely debilitating, and, in the preantibiotic era acute staphylococcal osteomyelitis carried a mortality rate of 50%. The microbiology of diabetic foot osteomyelitis (DFO) is usually polymicrobial. Indeed, gram-negative and gram-positive bacilli can be identified using molecular techniques applied to bone biopsies compared to conventional techniques. The aim of the present study is to report a complete overview regarding medical and surgical management of diabetic foot osteomyelitis (DFO) in combination or alone.Materials and methodsWe performed a search in PubMed and Scopus electronic databases (up to January 2019) of articles assessing the epidemiology, diagnostic strategy and pharmacological treatment of diabetic foot infection. In the search strategy, we used various combinations of the following key terms: infection, orthopaedic, diabetic foot, management, DFO.ResultsThis article discusses the definition, epidemiology, microbiological assessment, clinical evaluation, pharmacological and surgical management and a comparison between them, of DFO. After the initial literature search and removal of duplicate records, a total of 756 potentially relevant citations were identified. After a further screening and according to the inclusion criteria, a total of 65 articles were included in the present review.ConclusionThe association of antibiotic and surgical therapy seems to be more effective compared to each one alone. The lack of comparison studies and randomized controlled trials makes it difficult to give information about the efficacy of the different management therapies.     

Pediatric foot fractures

Fractures of the foot in children usually have a good prognosis and generally are treated nonoperatively. Displaced fractures of the talus and calcaneus and tarsometatarsal dislocations are rare in children and their outcome is generally good in the younger child. Older adolescents with these injuries need treatment similar to how an adult would be treated for the same injury in order to achieve a good result. Foot fractures in children may pose a diagnostic challenge particularly in the absence of obvious radiographic changes. Repeated clinical examination and judicious use of imaging techniques such as isotope bone scans and magnetic resonance imaging are needed to establish a diagnosis. Knowledge of the anatomy and significance of accessory bones of the foot and disorders of the growing foot skeleton are helpful in managing injuries of child's foot. In this study, we review common injuries of a child's foot and include a discussion on differential diagnosis.     

拇趾毁损伤的再造

目的介绍逆行足内、外侧双岛状瓦合皮瓣加髂骨植骨再造足拇趾外伤性缺损的临床经验。方法对拇趾及踌、第2趾毁损且跖趾关节完好者,采用以足背动脉跖底深支为蒂,以内踩前或跗内侧血管、外踝前或跗外侧血管为分支的足内、外侧分叶皮瓣瓦合加髂骨植骨再造足拇趾。结果术后皮瓣顺利成活,经6～18个月随访,再造足拇趾外形满意,皮瓣两点辨别觉6-8mm,X线示髂骨与残端趾骨骨性愈合,髂骨未见吸收征象．拇趾跖趾关节背伸达40°,屈曲达30°。结论采用逆行足内、外侧分叶瓦合皮瓣加髂骨植骨再造拇趾是一种简单有效的方法。     

Weichteilschädigung und Kompartmentsyndrom

Complex foot injury is usually the result of high-energy trauma or direct crush injury to the foot. Owing to the very thin layer of soft tissue covering the bones on the foot, multiple fractures or luxations are common. In addition, soft tissue defects, primary or secondary, can complicate the situation. If the skin is intact, high pressure in any of the four compartments leads to compartment syndrome of the foot. Poor long-term results are common if management is poor from the beginning. The management of such complex injuries should address both bone and soft tissue and demands the involvement of experts who are willing and able to use all the procedures open to modern reconstructive surgery.     

糖尿病足部溃疡外科保肢治疗进展

糖尿病足部溃疡是糖尿病的一个严重并发症,占非创伤性截肢的第1位。糖尿病足发病涉及足踝外科、血管外科、内分泌科.、感染控制,治疗方案需多学科联合诊治。清创术是治疗糖尿病足部溃疡的基础,清创过程中须注意维持足部正常解剖结构;负压封闭引流技术以及抗生素骨水泥在外科感染控制、溃烂创面愈合方面优势明显,疗效满意;肌腱延长术可缓解足底部应力集中导致的溃疡发生、进展等,其适应证广泛,优势在于既可预防足部溃疡形成也可治疗溃疡;皮瓣移植虽可以解决创口愈合问题,但是需要考虑移植皮瓣能否承担与足底组织相同的功能;胫骨骨搬运是一项较新的技术,具体机制还不清楚,但从临床疗效看具有一定的应用前景。     

Complete Medial Dislocation of the First Cuneiform: A Case Report

Isolated dislocation of the first cuneiform bone is an extremely rare lesion that can usually be diagnosed on plain radiography. Few cases of this injury have been previously described in the literature. The case presented here resulted from a torsion injury and was treated by means of closed reduction with the aid of pointed reduction forceps. After fixation with Kirschner wires, the foot was immobilized for 6 weeks. The patient recovered uneventfully and remains asymptomatic 3 years later.     

Car-tyre friction injuries of the foot in children

In a prospective study, 25 cases of car-tyre friction injuries of the foot in children were included. The mechanism of injury was similar in all patients: As the car-tyre impacted on the child's foot, the driver was usually trying to stop the car resulting in an injury of variable severity, depending on the amount of energy absorbed by the foot. The site of injury varied according to the position of the foot in relation to the tyre at the time of impact. Sixteen out of the 25 patients presented with acute injuries. The severity of foot injury was classified into five grades and the plan of management in these patients was guided by the grade of the acute injury. The remaining nine patients presented with secondary deformity and principles of secondary reconstruction were also demonstrated with clinical examples. Prevention of these injuries are discussed.     

The impact of Syme amputation in surgical treatment of patients with diabetic foot syndrome and Charcot-neuro-osteoarthropathy

Introduction Charcot-neuro-osteoarthropathy with its severe destruction of bones remains a challenge for physicians and surgeons. The aim of the study was to characterise a patient population treated in a specialised foot care centre who underwent surgical treatment for their diabetic foot syndrome. Special attention was paid to patients who suffered from Charcot-neuro-osteoarthropathy and the impact of Syme amputation if amputation of the foot was inevitable.Materials and methods A total of 121 patients with diabetic foot syndrome and ulcerations underwent an interdisciplinary strategy for diagnostic and therapeutic procedures including MRI and surgical interventions. If peripheral arterial vessel disease was present, revascularisation by distal bypass grafting was done before the orthopaedic intervention. Some 24% showed the typical neuro-osteoarthropathy with severe bone destruction. In 8 cases amputation of the foot was performed using the Syme technique.Results In our population the short-term results (follow-up 12 months, 20% lost to follow-up) are good, only 4% of the patients required further surgery on the same foot. In all patients with Charcot feet, plain radiographs showed the typical radiographic signs of the disease, and MRI was most helpful to detect abscess formations. The typical clinical problems of patients with Charcot disease are pointed out, and conservative and surgical treatment options are discussed. All patients with Syme amputation did well, wound healing and weight-bearing of the limb were accomplished.Conclusion The crucial diagnostic tool for decision-making in diabetic foot syndrome was MRI, which normally shows osteomyelitis with high sensitivity and specificity. In patients with Charcot-neuro-osteoarthropathy, the bone marrow oedema of the involved parts of the skeleton might misleadingly suggest the diagnosis of osteomyelitis. If amputation is inevitable in severe abscess formation combined with instability and perforation of the dislocated and destroyed bones in Charcot-neuro-osteoarthropathy, these patients might benefit from a foot amputation according to the technique Syme described. For this procedure the blood supply of the posterior tibial artery is essential. All these patients were able to walk without support. The material presented helps to generate hypotheses for further prospective studies.     

Ostéome ostéoïde de l’os naviculaire tarsien: à propos d’un cas et revue de la littérature

Osteoid osteoma is a benign tumour that usually affects the long bones. Its localization to the tarsal navicular bone of the foot is rare. We report a case of a 46-year-old man with an 18-month history of persistent foot pain whose diagnosis was difficult and established late because of a clinical presentation resembling arthritis. The patient underwent an en bloc excision of the nidus, reporting immediate pain relief and experiencing no recurrence of the lesion or symptoms 33 months after the procedure.     

Epiphyseal injuries of the foot and ankle

A thorough knowledge of functional growth plate anatomy and physiology is essential to proper management of epiphyseal foot and ankle injuries. The ability to classify foot and ankle fractures according to the Salter-Harris anatomic and radiographic classification provides useful prognostic information that may affect treatment. The Dias-Tachdjian mechanistic classification system for pediatric ankle fractures provides useful information about the extent of osseous and soft tissue injury and the best method of closed reduction and correlates well with the Lauge-Hansen system, which is widely used for adult ankle fractures. Most epiphyseal foot fractures involve the metatarsals or phalanges and can usually be managed with closed reduction. Considerable spontaneous correction of deformity can be expected in the younger child (under age 10 years), but one should be aware that sagittal plane and rotational malalignment of the metatarsal heads may cause significant problems. Salter-Harris type I and II fractures of the ankle can usually be managed with closed reduction. Salter-Harris type III and IV ankle fractures with greater than 2 mm of displacement require open reduction and internal fixation. One must also have a high index of suspicion for juvenile Tillaux and triplane transitional fractures that may not be obvious on plain radiographs. Although these fractures usually do not produce significant limb-length discrepancies, they are intra-articular fractures and ankle joint arthritis can result. Finally, younger children (under age 10 years) have a better prognosis for spontaneous correction of nongrowth arrest-induced deformities but a much poorer prognosis with growth arrest injuries than do older children, in whom growth arrest does not usually cause a significant problem. All children with growth plate injuries should be followed at regular intervals for at least 2 years or to skeletal maturity in the case of physeal disturbance. Treatment of epiphyseal fractures of the foot and ankle must be individualized but should always be based upon a thorough knowledge of anatomy, bone growth physiology, classification, potential pitfalls, and prognosis.     

“Silent” bone stress injuries in the feet of diabetic patients with polyneuropathy: a report on 12 cases

Background Bone stress injuries are rarely being diagnosed in patients with sensory neuropathy, most likely because they may be silent in terms of pain. Load-related pain is considered a key feature of any bone stress injury, a symptom, which may be partially or completely absent in subjects with sensory neuropathy (loss of protective sensation). We evaluated the clinical course of bone stress injuries in insensitive feet in diabetic patients with polyneuropathy. Methods We investigated 12 consecutive diabetic patients with bone stress injuries of the foot (bone marrow edema, bone bruise and microtrabecular fractures, on magnetic resonance imaging MRI), which were undetectable on plain X-ray. All patients suffered from diabetic polyneuropathy, none of them had an active foot ulcer. Results The patients presented with a swollen foot, which was only mildly painful and did not prevent them from walking. Complaints were related to the swelling, which increased during load-bearing. In seven cases, a traumatic event preceding the onset of symptoms could be ascertained. MRI disclosed stress injuries in 2.5 (1–8) [median (range)] bones per foot. In 11 patients, treatment was started immediately by off-loading with total contact cast for 17 (8–52) weeks, followed by gradual increase in weight bearing. One patient unfortunately received off-loading treatment only after deforming fractures had developed. All bone injuries healed uneventuelly in eight patients, and with residual mild osteoarthrosis in three patients without gross deformities. However, the untreated patient developed severe Charcot foot deformity. Conclusions In diabetic patients with polyneuropathy, symptoms of bone stress injuries of the foot are atypical, in that there is load-related swelling rather than load-related pain. Immediate diagnosis, and treatment with off-loading, leads to a restitutio ad integrum like in non-neuropathic patients. Delayed cessation of overuse, however, may cause irreversible joint and bone damage (Charcot foot).     

单纯副舟骨切除术治疗足副舟骨疼痛综合征

目的：观察及评价单纯副舟骨切除术治疗足副舟骨疼痛综合征的临床疗效。方法：从2006年11月至2008年12月,收治足副舟骨疼痛综合征患者23例25足,全部采用单纯副舟骨切除术治疗,其中男14例,女9例;年龄8～35岁,平均14.6岁;病程6个月～12年。主要症状是跑步或行走后足疼痛,多为间歇性,查体足舟骨粗隆处异常突起伴压痛,X线或CT检查发现副舟骨存在。治疗是以足副舟骨为中心做一长约2cm弧形切口,剖开或部分切断胫后肌腱,暴露出副舟骨并切除,明显突起的舟骨隆突部分咬除和修整,胫后肌腱均予修复。术后佩戴内翻位支具2周扶双拐不负重行走,2周后逐渐弃拐负重,3个月内避免剧烈跑跳运动。有残留症状者结合理疗和足弓垫支撑垫等处理措施。术后随访评估患者症状缓解程度及活动恢复情况。结果：所有病例术后随访3～18个月,平均12个月。症状完全消失21足,大部分缓解4足（其中3足合并轻度扁平足,1足合并陈旧扭伤）。平均住院5d,无切口感染,均恢复日常生活和工作。结论：单纯副舟骨切除术治疗足副舟骨疼痛综合征,对胫后肌腱损伤小,不干扰足底内侧纵弓,术后无须长时间制动,住院时间短,创伤小,临床疗效较好,特别适合无扁平足及陈旧足外伤患者。     

Entorse bilatérale de l’articulation médiotarsienne de Chopart (à propos d’un cas)

Metatarsal sprains of Chopart’s joint are less well known than those of the talocrural joint. A correctly performed, specific standard X-ray, guided by clinical examination, is usually sufficient to assess the injury. We present an exceptional case of a pure bilateral sprain of the mediotarsal joint, in a young woman aged 25, caused by a poor landing after a jump. The clinical exam guided diagnosis and the X-ray of the foot showed bilateral tearing of the upper talonavicular ligament, bearing witness to a severe sprain. Functional treatment was adopted, consisting of wearing orthotic footwear with special soles for six weeks. Additional functional rehabilitation was also implemented. The result was satisfactory with consolidation of the bone tear, recovery of mobility and the elimination of pain in the metatarsal joint.     

Transient osteoporosis of the navicular bone in a runner

Introduction Transient osteoporosis or the bone marrow oedema syndrome is described as a self-limiting disorder. Transient osteoporosis usually affects only one bone, predominantly the proximal femur. Involvement of the foot is rare and often overlooked. A disorder of the navicular bone of the foot can be found twice in the literature.Materials and methods We report a case of transient osteoporosis of the navicular bone of the foot in a 20-year-old, female, top-level track athlete (400 m sprinter) treated with alendronate, and a review of the literature.Results The therapeutic options are limited, frequently consisting of non-specific, symptomatic therapy. Some authors report favourable results with core decompression, while others have reported good results with a conservative regime of symptomatic treatment and avoidance of weight-bearing until the clinical and radiological changes have resolved. In the described case, the patient had a favourable result after a short course of treatment with alendronate. She experienced almost immediate pain reduction and presented a complete resolution of the abnormal signal intensity on MRI.Conclusion This rapid result makes the use of alendronate seem promising in athletes with transient osteoporosis, permitting an early return to high-level activities.     

胫骨横向骨搬移结合负压引流治疗糖尿病足溃疡的临床疗效分析

目的 :探讨胫骨横向骨搬移微血管网再生技术结合封闭负压引流治疗伴溃疡形成的糖尿病足的临床疗效。方法:对2015年11月至2016年12月采用胫骨横向骨搬移结合负压引流治疗的19例伴溃疡形成的糖尿病足的临床资料进行回顾性分析,男15例,女4例;年龄42~82岁,平均(64.57±7.14)岁;糖尿病平均病程(14.62±6.19)年;左足12例,右足7例;溃疡面积2 cm×3 cm~8 cm×6 cm;按照Texas分类法进行分类,所有病例为D期,其中2级3例,3级10例,4级6例。手术前后测量踝肱指数及密歇根神经体征评分(MNSI)评价患足周围血管和周围神经功能恢复情况,术后复查血管造影或血管彩超。结果:19例患者中17例术后获得随访,时间3~13个月,平均6.9个月。17例患足创面均得到愈合;术后3个月踝肱指数由术前的0.51±0.20升至0.93±0.18,差异有统计学意义(t=13.63,P=0.000);术后3个月的MNSI为5.76±1.44,优于术前的4.06±1.36,差异有统计学意义(t=7.31,P=0.000)。术后复查血管造影或血管彩超显示患足微血管网再生满意,患足功能达到正常运动和日常生活需要。结论:胫骨横向骨搬移微血管网再生技术可以重建患肢小腿以下微血管网,促进周围血管及周围神经恢复,结合封闭负压引流可促进创面愈合,具有手术简便、疗效确切,保肢成功率高的优点,是治疗糖尿病足溃疡的理想方法之一。     

Diabetic foot disease:From the evaluation of the “foot at risk” to the novel diabetic ulcer treatment modalities

The burden of diabetic foot disease(DFD) is expected to increase in the future. The incidence of DFD is still rising due to the high prevalence of DFD predisposing factors. DFD is multifactorial in nature; however most of the diabetic foot amputations are preceded by foot ulceration. Diabetic peripheral neuropathy(DPN) is a major risk factor for foot ulceration. DPN leads to loss of protective sensation resulting in continuous unconscious traumas. Patient education and detection of high risk foot are essential for the prevention of foot ulceration and amputation. Proper assessment of the diabetic foot ulceration and appropriate management ensure better prognosis. Management is based on revascularization procedures, wound debridement, treatment of infection and ulcer offloading. Management and type of dressing applied are tailored according to the type of wound and the foot condition. The scope of this review paper is to describe the diabetic foot syndrome starting from the evaluation of the foot at risk for ulceration, up to the new treatment modalities.     

Fracture of the os trigonum: a case report

The os trigonum is an inconsistently present accessory bone of the foot situated at the posterolateral aspect of the talus. It may be radiographically confused with fractures of the posterior process of the talus. Fracture of the os trigonum per se is extremely rare. Hyperplantarflexion of the ankle is the mechanism of injury in which the os trigonum is compressed between the posterior malleolus of the tibia and the tuber calcaneus. Computed tomography is the choice of imaging modality in cases where fractures of posterior talus structures, including the os trigonum, are suspected. A high index of suspicion is necessary to diagnose a fracture of the os trigonum after a severe plantarflexion injury to the ankle. Conservative treatment is usually successful. We report a case of a fracture of the os trigonum, its clinical features, treatment and significance.