Experimental evaluation of the resistance of the skin grafted rectum to ileal contents

There are three general approaches to prevent the development of cancer in patients with premalignant colorectal diseases. One method requires total colectomy and excision of the rectal mucous membrane. For 35 years, patients have had their rectal muscle tube covered by a variety of full-thickness ileal pullthrough operations. For 30 years, various types of pelvic ileal pouches have been tried in attempts to improve bowel function. This report attempts to evaluate another approach in experimental animals. The rectal submucosa was skin grafted and subsequently anastomosed to the ileum to assess its ability to stand up to that milieu. The results were promising with a maximum follow-up of 1 year. This may prove to be another option to ileoanastomy with or without a pouch.     

Incidence of unanticipated difficult airway in obstetric patients in a teaching institution

Purpose

Our aim was to determine the incidence of difficult intubation during pregnancy-related surgery at a high-risk, high-volume teaching institution.

Methods

Airway experience was analyzed among patients who had pregnancy-related surgery under general anesthesia from January 2001 through February 2006. A difficult airway was defined as needing three or more direct laryngoscopy (DL) attempts, use of the additional airway equipment after the DL attempts, or conversion to regional anesthesia due to inability to intubate. Airway characteristics were compared between patients with and without a difficult airway. In addition, pre- and postoperative airway evaluations were compared to identify factors closely related to changes from pregnancy.

Results

In a total of 30,766 operations, 2,158 (7%) were performed with general anesthesia. Among these, 1,026 (47.5%) were for emergency cesarean delivery (CD), 610 (28.3%) for nonemergency CD, and 522 (24.2%) for non-CD procedures. A total of 12 patients (0.56%) were identified as having a difficult airway. Four patients were intubated with further DL attempts; others required mask ventilation and other airway equipment. Two patients were ventilated through a laryngeal mask airway without further intubation attempts. Ten of the 12 difficult airway cases were encountered by residents during their first year of clinical anesthesia training. There were no maternal or fetal complications except one possible aspiration.

Conclusion

Unanticipated difficult airways accounted for 0.56% of all pregnancy-related surgical patients. More than 99.9% of all obstetric patients could be intubated. A difficult airway is more likely to be encountered by anesthesia providers with <1?year of experience. Proper use of airway equipment may help secure the obstetric airway or provide adequate ventilation. Emergency CD did not add an additional level of difficulty over nonemergency CD.     

Lytic therapy in the treatment of axillary and subclavian vein thrombosis

The importance of individualized treatment of patients with primary and secondary axillary-subclavian vein thrombosis is described with special emphasis on the use of thrombolytic therapy. Nine patients were treated with streptokinase or urokinase. Balloon dilation of the axillary or subclavian vein and first rib resection were also selectively used. Of the five patients with primary axillary-subclavian thrombosis, three did not have symptoms after the thrombus was lysed. Two had successful lysis of the thrombus but later suffered a rethrombosis, one of which most likely resulted from an untreated stenosis. All four of the patients with secondary thrombosis had successful thrombolysis. Patients with primary axillary-subclavian thrombosis are usually young and as many as 40% continue to have intermittent upper extremity edema or pain. For this reason we believe aggressive attempts to reestablish normal venous return through the axillary and subclavian veins are warranted. Patients with secondary axillary-subclavian thrombosis usually require prolonged venous catheterization for chemotherapy or total parenteral nutrition. Since patency of major upper extremity veins is extremely important in these patients with secondary thrombosis, we believe that vigorous attempts to restore these venous access routes are indicated and appropriate.     

Miscellaneous medications for the management of atherosclerosis: mayhem or miracle?

A plethora of agents have been proposed to combat atherosclerosis, and many of these come from outside mainstream medicine. The majority have anti-oxidant properties, which is the scientific basis for their supposed action. Some of these agents have been evaluated carefully in randomized, double-blinded studies, whereas others have gained popularity despite a paucity of valid data. Although many are prescribed or physician recommended, most are used without the knowledge of the patient's physician. In some cases these "medications" may have harmful side effects or impact negatively on other aspects of the patients medical or surgical care. Others, however, may be extremely beneficial although not utilized because the doctor is unaware of their potential. Accordingly, it is important that the vascular surgeon become acquainted with these compounds. This report attempts to summarize the most commonly used herbs, vitamins, foods and other sundry "treatments" and makes recommendations for their use based on our current understanding of their scientific and clinical merit.     

Treatment of recurrent craniopharyngioma

Treatment results on 48 patients with "recurrent" craniopharyngioma treated by surgery or/and radiation are analyzed. Median relapse-free survival time was 43.6 months in patients treated initially with radiation and 22.2 months without. Operative death occurred in 17% of all patients and in 3 out of six patients after total removal. The five- and ten-year survival rates were 91.7% and 66.8%, respectively, for 14 patients treated with combined surgery and radiation therapy. For 26 patients treated with surgery, the survival rates were 20.3% and 10.1%. All of 6 patients, who had received both initial and later radiotherapy, were well 1/2 to 18 years later without clinical evidence of radiation injury. These results lead us to the following conclusions: 1) A radical surgery in recurrent cases has the higher risks of mortality and morbidity than that of the first radical surgery. 2) Radiation therapy improved the survival rate of patients with "recurrent" craniopharyngioma. 3) After initial radiation therapy, additional irradiation was allowed based on the scale of nominal standard dosage and the estimation of "decay factor".     

Transmeatal cochlear laser (TCL) treatment of cochlear dysfunction: A feasibility study for chronic tinnitus

Low-level-laser-therapy (LLLT) targeting the inner ear has been discussed as a therapeutic procedure for cochlear dysfunction such as chronic cochlear tinnitus or sensorineural hearing loss. Former studies demonstrate dose-dependent biological and physiological effects of LLLT such as enhanced recovery of peripheral nerve injuries, which could be of therapeutic interest in cochlear dysfunction. To date, in patients with chronic tinnitus mastoidal and transmeatal irradiation has been performed without systematic dosimetric assessment. However, light-dosimetric studies on human temporal bones demonstrated that controlled application of laserlight to the human cochlea depends on defined radiator position within the external auditory meatus. This feasibility study first presents a laser application system enabling dose-controlled transmeatal cochlear laser-irradiation (TCL), as well as preliminary clinical results in patients with chronic cochlear tinnitus. The novel laser TCL-system, consisting of four diode lasers (=635 nm–830 nm) and a new specific head-set applicator, was developed on the basis of dosimetric data from a former light-dosimetric study. In a preliminary clinical study, the TCL-system was applied to 35 patients with chronic tinnitus and sensorineural hearing loss. The chronic symptoms persisted after standard therapeutic procedures for at least six months, while retrocochlear or middle-ear pathologies have been ruled out. The patients were randomised and received five single diode laser treatments (=635 nm, 7.8 mW cw, n=17 and =830 nm, 20 mW cw, n=18) with a space irradiation of 4 J/cm² site of maximal cochlear injury. For evaluation of laser-induced effects complete otolaryngologic examinations with audiometry, tinnitus masking and matching, and a tinnitus-self-assessment were performed before, during and after the laser-irradiation. The first clinical use of the TCL-system has been well tolerated without side-effects and produced no observable damage to the external, middle or inner ear. Changes of tinnitus loudness and tinnitus matching have been described. After a follow-up period of six months tinnitus loudness was attenuated in 13 of 35 irradiated patients, while two of 35 patients reported their tinnitus as totally absent. Hearing threshold levels and middle ear function remained unchanged. Further investigations by large double-blind placebo-controlled studies are mandatory for clinical evaluation of the presented TCL-system and its therapeutic effectiveness in acute and chronic cochlear dysfunction.     

Postoperative luxury perfusion syndrome in patients with severe subarachnoid hemorrhage treated by early aneurysmal clipping.

Cerebral blood flow (CBF) was measured in 90 patients who underwent early aneurysmal clipping after subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). Measurements were made by a noninvasive, two-dimensional method involving intravenous injection of 133Xe. Patients of Hunt and Hess grades I and II exhibited normal to slightly subnormal CBF, without significant changes, during the study period. Grades III-V patients had almost normal CBF in the early postoperative period, but their CBF gradually decreased, becoming significantly low after day 31. It is noteworthy that in grades IV and V patients, CBF was abnormally high in the acute stage, relative to their poor neurological condition; these patients were considered to have the "global luxury perfusion syndrome." The syndrome was not uncommon in patients with severe SAH. Possible causative or contributory factors are attempts to surgically reduce intracranial pressure, which leads to increased cerebral perfusion pressure, and concomitant global dysautoregulation. In patients with this syndrome, maneuvers intended to increase CBF should be avoided, as they may aggravate brain swelling or cause hemorrhagic events. Positron emission tomographic studies will provide more accurate and useful information concerning the management of SAH patients.     

Traumatic injuries of the portal vein. The role of acute ligation.

Injuries to the portal vein are rare but have a high risk with a mortality of 50--70% secondary to exsanguinating hemorrhage. When managing injuries to the portal vein, lateral venorrhaphy, end to end anastomosis, or an interposition graft should be attempted whenever possible. However, in a hemodynamically unstable patient or when confronted with a nonreconstructable injury, acute portal vein ligation may be the procedure of choice as it is safely tolerated in some 80% of patients. Of eleven reported patients in whom the portal vein was ligated acutely for traumatic injury, six survived. Four of the nonsurvivors died of massive associated injuries. Of the six surviving patients, five tolerated acute ligation of the portal vein without complication. Should portal vein ligation be performed a "second look" operation is essential in 24 hours to examine the bowel for viability. A portosystemic shunt with its inherent complications should not be done as a primary procedure when attempts at reconstruction of the portal vein have failed. Shunting should be reserved for those few patients who develop stigmata of portal hypertension or impending infarction of the bowel.     

Primary bile reflux gastritis: diagnosis and surgical treatment

Bile reflux gastritis has been recognized since the first successful gastric operations and has persisted for more than a century. Diagnosis has been difficult and non-operative therapy largely ineffective. Early attempts at surgical correction resulted in stomal ulceration and it was not until the advent of flexible endoscopy and other techniques that diagnosis became more secure. Operative attempts at correction have included the Roux-en-Y procedure, the Braun enteroenterostomy, and Henley jejunal interposition. None of the procedures has been uniformly successful, and the Roux-en-Y has resulted in a disabling stasis syndrome in most patients. The diagnosis of bile reflux without previous gastric surgery has been even more elusive and seems to be associated with previous cholecystectomy. Thirty-one patients diagnosed with primary bile reflux, having typical symptoms of epigastric pain, nausea, and bilious vomiting have been treated by diverting bile flow through a Roux-en-Y choledochojejunostomy without accompanying gastric resection or vagotomy. There were no operative deaths and no long-term problems, such as anastomotic stricture. Two patients had self-limited bile leaks. Twenty-seven of the 31 patients (87%) have achieved complete relief of symptoms and have no gastrointestinal complaints. Serial gastric emptying has demonstrated no alteration in 9 of 12 patients who were normal before operation, and improvement in 12 of the 19 (63%) patients with abnormal preoperative studies.     

Endoprosthetic surgery in 1988

Aseptic loosening remains the main problem of arthroplasty. On one hand, this has led to the development of new cements and improvement in cementing techniques. On the other hand, especially intensive efforts have been made in recent years to anchor the implants directly to bone. The major alternatives available today for endoprosthetic fixation are cement "pressurization" and "bony ingrowth". The differences in implant fixation, with or without cement, must take into consideration the design, surface characteristics, and the material properties of the implants as well as the operative technique. In principle, there are major differences both with regard to the biology and to the mechanics between the acetabulum and the femur. On the acetabular side, the objective of reliable fixation has been achieved at least in the medium term. Gratifying advances are also being increasingly shown in the femur. However, until today hardly any prosthetic femoral model is able to provide reliable primary results with regard to freedom from pain, as is the case with the modern cement techniques. For many orthopaedic surgeons, a "hybrid" is the solution to the problem for patients over 60 years old: i.e. cementless anchoring of the acetabulum socket and cementing of the prosthetic shaft. For young, active patients and for revision arthroplasties, with major loss of bone substance, we require a cementless technique. With this technique and use of bone transplantation, it is today possible to reconstruct even severely damaged joints and to create situations corresponding to those of a primary arthroplasty. In the knee joint aseptic loosening of cemented endoprostheses is less of a problem and the decision in favour of cementless fixation depends even more on the quality of the bone than on the hip joint. For the future it is becoming increasingly apparent that a single method on its own will not exist, but that the surgeon must choose the most suitable method (with or without cement) dependent on the case. Accurate preoperative planning becomes indispensable.     

Taming an old enemy: a profile of intracranial suppuration

Intracranial suppurative disorders (ICSDs; brain abscess, empyema, and purulent ventriculitis), have been a scourge through the ages and attempts at curative surgery, as for cranial trauma, are considered to be one of the first true neurosurgical interventions performed. ICSDs, seen initially as a consequence of poor socioeconomic conditions and neglected otorhinogenic infections, predominantly manifest today as postsurgical complications, and/or in immunocompromised patients where they continue to result in significant neurologic morbidity and death. The reduction in the incidence of "old world" classic ICSDs can be attributed to the modernization of society, driven inter alia by a shift from an agricultural to an industrial economic society. It can also be coupled with pivotal achievements in public health and the dramatic developments in medicine in the 20th century. This trend was first noted in developed countries but now, with improved socioeconomic circumstances and globalization of medical technology, it is occurring in the developing regions of the world as well. Although ICSDs have undergone a metamorphosis in their clinical profile and despite their rarity in contemporary "developed world" neurosurgical practice, they still have undoubted potential for fatal consequences and continue to pose a significant challenge to the 21st-century neurosurgeon.     

The efficacy of repeat percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration procedures

PURPOSE: The development of intracytoplasmic sperm injection spawned new methods of sperm retrieval for men with obstructive azoospermia who did not want to undergo reconstruction of the seminal tract. There is a wide array of different procedures that may be performed in these cases, for instance percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration (PESA) and microepididymal sperm aspiration. However, concerns regarding the presence of sperm in a second PESA attempt due to possible fibrosis have been suggested by many authors. We evaluate if it is worthwhile to repeat percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The records of 20 patients (23 attempts) who underwent repeat PESA from January 1996 to September 2000 for assisted reproductive technique purposes were reviewed. In all patients the repeat procedure was performed on the same side as the previous PESA. Data were collected on patient age, presence of motile sperm during PESA, epididymal side, pregnancies and abortion rates. RESULTS: Mean patient age +/- SD was 32.4 +/- 5.6 years. One patient was excluded from our analysis due to lack of information on the chart regarding the side of the procedure. Repeat PESA was performed in the right epididymis in 12 attempts and in the left in 10. Of the remaining 19 patients 14 (73.68%) did not and 5 (26.3%) have sperm in the epididymal fluid. In these 5 patients 8 repeat PESA procedures were performed (3 procedures in 1 and motile sperm was always found (8 of 22 attempts, 36.4%). Three patients achieved pregnancy with the motile sperm retrieved from the repeat PESA (3 of 8 repeat attempts, 37.5%). No abortions were detected. CONCLUSIONS: More than a third of repeat PESA attempts resulted in the presence of motile sperm. Before performing testicular sperm aspiration or extraction in patients who have undergone previous PESA without achieving pregnancy, repeat PESA may be done. Further attempts should be added in the future to confirm these results.     

Hemorrhage after pancreaticoduodenectomy: when is surgery still indicated?

BACKGROUND: This study analyzed presentation and management of hemorrhage after pancreaticoduodenectomy (PD) to determine the respective role of surgery and embolization. METHODS: From January 1992 to March 2005, 411 patients underwent PD and were analyzed with regard to postoperative hemorrhage. RESULTS: Hemorrhage occurred in 27 patients (7%), either within the first 3 postoperative days ("early" hemorrhage, n = 11) or after day 8 ("delayed" hemorrhage, n = 16, including 4 with "sentinel" bleeding). At the time of bleeding, 12 patients (44%) (all with delayed hemorrhage) had associated abdominal complications. Two patients had successful conservative treatment. Two stable patients with pseudoaneurysm, diagnosed by computed tomography scan, underwent successful embolization. Four patients with active bleeding underwent unsuccessful angiography. Overall, 23 patients were reoperated on without any completion pancreatectomy, 3 rebled, and 3 (11%) died (including 2 with delayed hemorrhage). CONCLUSIONS: Both embolization and surgery have a role in the management of hemorrhage after PD. For early hemorrhage, reoperation is appropriate. In case of sentinel bleeding, pseudoaneurysms can be detected by computed tomography scan and treated by embolization. For delayed active hemorrhage, reoperation is still indicated.     

Accounting for intubation status in predicting mortality for victims of motor vehicle crashes

BACKGROUND: Two of the important predictors of mortality for trauma patients are the Glasgow Coma Scale and the respiratory rate. However, for intubated patients, the verbal response component of the Glasgow Coma Scale and the respiratory rate cannot be accurately obtained. This study extends previous work that attempts to predict mortality accurately for intubated patients without using verbal response and respiratory rate. METHODS: The New York State Trauma Registry was used to identify 1994 and 1995 victims of motor vehicle crashes (MVCs). For the subset of patients who were not intubated, we developed two statistical models to predict mortality: one did not contain verbal response or respiratory rate, and the other contained a predicted verbal response. These were compared with a model that did include verbal response and respiratory rate. We also compared the predictive abilities of the first two models for all MVC patients (intubated and nonintubated) and determined the extent to which intubated patients were at increased risk of dying in the hospital after having adjusted for other predictors of mortality. RESULTS: For nonintubated patients, the statistical model without verbal response and the model with predicted verbal response had slightly better discrimination and worse calibration than the model that included verbal response and respiratory rate. Predicted verbal response did not improve the strength of the model without verbal response. For all MVC patients (intubated and nonintubated), predicted verbal response was not a significant predictor of mortality when used in combination with the other predictors. Intubation status was a significant predictor, with intubated patients having a higher probability of dying in the hospital than patients with otherwise identical risk factors. CONCLUSION: Inpatient mortality for intubated MVC patients can be accurately predicted without respiratory rate or verbal response. There appears to be no need for predicted verbal response to be part of the prediction formula, but intubation status is an important independent predictor of mortality and should be used in statistical models that predict mortality for MVC patients.     

Use of Extracorporeal Shock Waves in the Treatment of Pseudarthrosis, Tendinopathy and Other Orthopedic Diseases

Purpose

The use of shock waves in orthopedic diseases was reviewed with special regard to the clinical applications.

Materials and Methods

Findings in the literature and results from our own studies were analyzed and summarized.

Results

Extracorporeal shock waves induced osteoneogenesis in animal models with intact and fractured bones. Based on these findings shock waves were used for the treatment of pseudarthrosis in humans. Most patients had at least 1 unsuccessful operation before shock wave therapy. Complete reunion was noted in 62 to 91% of cases and shock waves are recommended by some as the first choice of treatment for hypertrophic pseudarthrosis.After failed nonoperative therapy shock waves were used for the treatment of patients with various diseases as secondary treatment. The success rate for treatment of tendinopathies, such as tennis elbow, periarthritis humeroscapularis or calcaneal spur, was approximately 80%. For calcific tendinitis shock wave therapy seems to be superior to all other minimal or noninvasive techniques without compromising a potential later operation.

Conclusions

Shock waves have changed medical therapy substantially. According for the epidemiology of the treated diseases, this new change may equal or even surpass the impact of extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy.     

Different cumulative pregnancy rates in patients with repeated IVF- or ICSI cycles: possible influence of a male factor

The low rate of ongoing pregnancies in IVF cycles leads to a high number of repeated cycles in couples with previously failed attempts. Therefore it would be helpful to have a prediction about the chance of becoming pregnant in a repeated cycle. In a retrospective study the data of about 4246 cycles were analysed. Because the pregnancy rates in IVF- and ICSI cycles are generally different, these two groups were distinguished between and the outcome in patients with one, two or more attempts was analysed. The rate of ongoing pregnancies per patient was lower after IVF (24.9%) than after ICSI (32.9%), but was similar or even slightly increased in patients with more than one attempt. On the other hand, there was a high pregnancy rate with ICSI in the first two cycles (35.9%), but patients with more than two ICSI cycles had a significantly lower chance of becoming pregnant (20.7%). Factors that are known to influence the pregnancy rate, such as stimulation protocol, oocyte quality or number of transferred embryos, were similar in all groups. However, significantly reduced embryo quality with successive cycles was only observed in ICSI patients. There might be a negative selection of patients with poor embryo quality and previously failed attempts after ICSI, possibly due to an andrological factor. The differences between IVF- and ICSI patients are based on treatment indications, and andrological diseases are the predominant indication for ICSI. Although no correlation was found between changes in conventional sperm parameters and number of treated cycles, there might be a subgroup of andrological patients selected by repeatedly failed ICSI cycles. Chromosomal or genetic disturbances in spermatozoa of this subgroup could be the reason for failure.     

Effect of Cricoid Pressure on the Success of Endotracheal Intubation with a Lightwand

Background: The lightwand may be useful as an alternative for tracheal intubation during a rapid-sequence induction of anesthesia in the presence of a full stomach. This study was undertaken to assess the effect of application of cricoid pressure on the success of lightwand intubation.

Methods: Sixty adult female patients presenting for abdominal hysterectomy were randomly allocated to lightwand intubation with and without cricoid pressure. The time to successful intubation and number of attempts were recorded.

Results: All 30 patients allocated to intubation without cricoid pressure were intubated successfully at the first attempt within a median time of 28 s (95% confidence interval, 18-77 s). Lightwand intubation with cricoid pressure was successful in 26 of 30 patients at the first attempt, but the median time to successful intubation was significantly longer at 48.5 s (95% confidence interval, 36-78 s;P = 0.001). Three patients required two attempts for successful intubation, and one could not be intubated with the lightwand while cricoid pressure was being applied.     

Pre-bent instruments used in single-port laparoscopic surgery versus conventional laparoscopic surgery: comparative study of performance in a dry lab

Background

Different types of single-incision laparoscopic surgery (SILS) have become increasingly popular. Although SILS is technically even more challenging than conventional laparoscopy, published data of first clinical series seem to demonstrate the feasibility of these approaches. Various attempts have been made to overcome restrictions due to loss of triangulation in SILS by specially designed SILS-specific instruments. This study involving novices in a dry lab compared task performances between conventional laparoscopic surgery (CLS) and single-port laparoscopic surgery (SPLS) using newly designed pre-bent instruments.

Methods

In this study, 90 medical students without previous experience in laparoscopic techniques were randomly assigned to undergo one of three procedures: CLS, SPLS using two pre-bent instruments (SPLS-pp), or SPLS using one pre-bent and one straight laparoscopic instrument (SPLS-ps). In the dry lab, the participants performed four typical laparoscopic tasks of increasing difficulty. Evaluation included performance times or number of completed tasks within a given time frame. All performances were videotaped and evaluated for unsuccessful attempts and unwanted interactions of instruments. Using subjective questionnaires, the participants rated difficulties with two-dimensional vision and coordination of instruments.

Results

Task performances were significantly better in the CLS group than in either SPLS group. The SPLS-ps group showed a tendency toward better performances than the SPLS-pp group, but the difference was not significant. Video sequences and participants` questionnaires showed instrument interaction as the major problem in the single-incision surgery groups.

Conclusions

Although SILS is feasible, as shown in clinical series published by laparoscopically experienced experts, SILS techniques are demanding due to restrictions that come with the loss of triangulation. These can be compensated only partially by currently available SILS-designed instruments. The future of SILS depends on further improvements in the available equipment or the development of new approaches such as needlescopically assisted or robotically assisted procedures.     

Duct carcinoma in situ. Pathology and treatment

Duct carcinoma in situ is now being detected with a frequency and at a size unknown prior to mammography. The majority of currently detected lesions are of limited extent and not associated with either occult invasion or axillary metastasis. For such limited duct carcinoma in situ, attempts at adequate local excision appear appropriate. Duct carcinoma in situ represents a number of biologically different processes that exhibit different frequencies of occult invasion and different risks for local recurrence after attempts at excision biopsy. The risks of local recurrence after a breast-conserving procedure without irradiation observing the selection criteria we employ can be estimated on the basis of the histologic subtype of the in situ carcinoma, the extent of disease, and the adequacy of the resection margins. In our prospective series, these risks ranged from 0 to 25 per cent for specific histologic subtypes at a median of 68 months of follow-up, with an overall frequency of recurrence of 12.6 per cent. All recurrences were local in the breast. Half were noninvasive disease, and all of the latter were initially treated by re-excision only. Other investigators report a similar experience. Invasive recurrences have been of minimal size, and all but one was free of nodal metastases. All patients are well at present. Three deaths have occurred secondary to cardiac disease.     

Surgical treatment of acute pancreatitis

Background

Acute pancreatitis remains an unpredictable, potentially lethal disease with significant morbidity and mortality rates. New insights in the pathophysiology of acute pancreatitis have changed management concepts. In the first phase, characterized by a systemic inflammatory response syndrome, organ failure, not related to infection but rather to severe inflammation, dominates the focus of treatment. In the second phase, secondary infectious complications largely determine the clinical outcome. As infection is associated with increased mortality in acute pancreatitis, numerous prophylactic strategies have been explored in the past two decades.

Purpose

This review describes the strategies that have been developed to lower the infection rate, in an attempt to lower mortality. Antibiotic prophylaxis has been the subject of many RCT’s without showing convincing evidence of their efficacy. Probiotics, although theoretically capable of lowering the rate of infection, also had no effect on infectious complications, and consequently, no effective strategy to lower the rate of infectious complications is currently available. In the second part of this review, new approaches for necrosectomy that have been designed by different centers around the world are discussed. All the interventional techniques have in common their aim to lower the invasive character, hypothesizing that lowering the surgical trauma will improve survival and lower complication rates. Recent advances include postponing intervention as a strategy to facilitate necrosectomy and improve prognosis and the “step-up approach” in case of infected necrosis. The step-up approach includes percutaneous catheter drainage as the first step, to be followed by necrosectomy, either through a minimally invasive approach or by open necrosectomy, as the next step.

Conclusions

All attempts to develop treatment strategies to lower the infection rate in acute pancreatitis have failed. Accumulating evidence is emerging to show that the combination of centralization, the use of catheter drainage as the first step of invasive treatment, and the development of minimally invasive techniques, improve the outlook for patients with infected necrosis. It is uncertain at this point in time as to which of the three effects is dominant in the improvement of prognosis.