No objectively measured sleep disturbances in children with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder

The main goal of this study was to gain more insight into sleep disturbances in children with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder, using objective measures of sleep quality and quantity. The evidence for sleep problems in children with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder thus far is inconsistent, which might be explained by confounding influences of comorbid internalizing and externalizing problems and low socio‐economic status. We therefore investigated the mediating and moderating role of these factors in the association between attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder and sleep problems. To control for the effects of stimulant medication use, all participants were tested free of medication. Sixty‐three children with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder and 61 typically developing children, aged 6–13 years, participated. Sleep was monitored for one to three school nights using actigraphy. Parent and teacher questionnaires assessed symptoms of attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder, internalizing behaviour, oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder. Results showed no differences between the attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder and typically developing group in any sleep parameter. Within the attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder group, severity of attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms was not related to sleep quality or quantity. Moderation analyses in the attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder group showed an interaction effect between attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms and internalizing and externalizing behaviour on total sleep time, time in bed and average sleep bout duration. The results of our study suggest that having attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder is not a risk factor for sleep problems. Internalizing and externalizing behaviour moderate the association between attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder and sleep, indicating a complex interplay between psychiatric symptoms and sleep.     

对立违抗性障碍、注意缺陷多动障碍儿童的冲动行为及社会心理因素

目的:探讨对立违抗性障碍(ODD)、注意缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)及二者共病儿童的冲动行为与心理社会因素的关系。方法:以152例正常儿童为对照组,以157例符合美国精神障碍诊断与统计手册第4版Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,Fourth Edition(DSM-IV)的ODD、ADHD、ODD合并ADHD,且Barratt冲动量表平均量表分≥正常组均值1.5个标准差的儿童为病例组,采用父母养育方式评价量表(EMBU)、家庭功能评定(FAD)、3～7岁儿童气质问卷(BSQ)、8～12岁儿童气质问卷(MCTQ)、儿童自我意识量表(PHCSS)、自尊调查量表(SEI)及Conners教师问卷(TRS)进行测查。结果:病例组EMBU父母情感温暖及理解得分低于对照组,惩罚及严厉、拒绝及否认得分高于对照组(均P0.05)。病例组FAD的情感介入、行为控制和总功能分值高于对照组(均P0.05)。病例组气质问卷的活动水平、节律性、反应强度、心境特征、持久性、注意分散维度分值高于对照组,病例组气质类型为麻烦型及中间近麻烦型的比例高于对照组(均P0.05)。病例组SEI总分低于对照组,Conners教师问卷的品行问题、多动、注意不集中-被动及多动指数高于对照组(均P0.05)。回归分析显示,夫妻关系差(OR=4.69)、父亲对儿童缺乏情感温暖及理解的养育方式(OR=1.06)、对新环境的适应能力差(OR=2.60)、对新刺激的反应阈值低(OR=2.75)及注意不集中(OR=3.60)可能是儿童发生冲动行为的危险因素;母亲的否认及拒绝少(OR=0.90)、运动冲动性弱(OR=0.83)、活动水平低(OR=0.19)、反应强度弱(OR=0.38)、多动指数低(OR=0.15)、问题解决好(OR=0.38)和情感介入少(OR=0.20)可能是儿童冲动行为的保护因素(P0.05)。结论:研究提示有冲动行为的ODD、ADHD儿童可能存在自尊程度较低、父母养育方式不良及家庭功能紊乱等社会心理因素。     

注意缺陷多动障碍儿童的时间知觉特征

目的:探讨注意缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)儿童的时间知觉特征及其可能相关的原因。方法:选取符合美国精神障碍诊断与统计手册第4版(DSM-IV)中ADHD的诊断标准,Conners父母症状问卷和Conners教师评定量表中的多动指数Z≥1.5的儿童55例及正常对照儿童55例,以中国修订韦氏儿童智力量表手册(C-WISC)评定总体智商,以时间辨别任务测试(TDTT)、Coirs积木测验(CBT)、儿童持续注意反应测试(C-SART)分别评定100 ms和1000 ms的时间知觉差别阈限值、视觉工作记忆广度、持续性注意的遗漏性错误次数和执行错误次数。结果:ADHD儿童总体智商得分低于正常组儿童[(97.4±11.2)vs.(110.3±12.1),P<0.01)],C-SART中的遗漏性错误次数高于正常儿童[(25.5±2.4)vs.(14.6±2.1),P<0.01]。100 ms条件下,ADHD儿童与正常儿童的时间知觉差别阈限值差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。1000 ms条件下,注意缺陷多动障碍儿童时间知觉差别阈限值高于正常儿童(P<0.01)。在控制总体智商之后,注意缺陷多动障碍儿童加工1000 ms时的差别阈限值与其CBT得分呈负相关(r=-0.54 P<0.01),与其C-SART中的遗漏错误和执行错误次数呈正相关(r=0.47、0.44,均P<0.01)。结论:注意缺陷多动障碍儿童相比正常儿童存在时间知觉缺陷,这一缺陷可能与其持续性注意和工作记忆的受损有关。     

Stimulants and growth in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Initial suggestions that suppression of growth may be an intrinsic characteristic of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have now largely been disproven. Although controversy persists regarding the possible negative effect of adrenergic stimulants on growth in children with ADHD, the consensus that appears to be reached in the scientific literature is that stimulant usage may cause a manageable attenuation of growth in these children. Since it is known that stimulants increase the amount of dopamine and noradrenaline in the synapse, this writing suggests that these increases in dopamine and noradrenaline are responsible for the growth attenuation in these children. It appears that increased amounts of dopamine and noradrenaline have the ability to inhibit the secretion of growth hormone and growth-related hormones such as prolactin, thyroid hormones, sex hormones and insulin. Therefore, it would be reasonable to suggest that the increases in dopamine and noradrenaline caused by stimulant usage can disrupt the homeostasis of both growth hormone and growth-related hormones, generating the potential for the suppression of growth.     

Allergic rhinitis in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

BACKGROUND: Both allergic rhinitis and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are common pediatric conditions associated with learning difficulties and sleep disturbances. There are conflicting research data regarding the association between ADHD and atopic disorders. OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of allergic rhinitis in patients with physician-diagnosed ADHD. METHODS: Patients 5 to 18 years of age who presented with a Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition diagnosis of ADHD to an outpatient pediatric psychiatry clinic were screened for allergic rhinitis with focused history, physical examination, and skin prick testing to common aeroallergens. RESULTS: Thirty patients were interviewed, with 23 of these undergoing physical examination and skin prick testing. Eighty percent reported allergic rhinitis symptoms, whereas 61% had at least 1 positive prick skin test result. Forty-three percent showed typical physical signs of allergic rhinitis, 100% had a positive atopic family history, and 53% had other associated atopic disorders. CONCLUSIONS: Most children with ADHD displayed symptoms and skin prick test results consistent with allergic rhinitis. Nasal obstruction and other symptoms of allergic rhinitis could explain some of the cognitive patterns observed in ADHD, which might result from sleep disturbance known to occur with allergic rhinitis. Therefore, evaluation and treatment of allergic rhinitis could benefit patients with ADHD.     

Peer-assessed outcomes in the multimodal treatment study of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Peer-assessed outcomes were examined at the end of treatment (14 months after study entry) for 285 children (226 boys, 59 girls) with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who were rated by their classmates (2,232 classmates total) using peer sociometric procedures. All children with ADHD were participants in the Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD (MTA). Treatment groups were compared using the orthogonal treatment contrasts that accounted for the largest amount of variance in prior MTA outcome analyses: Medication Management + Combined Treatment versus Behavior Therapy + Community Care; Medication Management versus Combined Treatment; Behavior Therapy versus Community Care. There was little evidence of superiority of any of the treatments for the peer-assessed outcomes studied, although the limited evidence that emerged favored treatments involving medication management. Post hoc analyses were used to examine whether any of the four treatment groups yielded normalized peer relationships relative to randomly selected-classmates. Results indicated that children from all groups remained significantly impaired in their peer relationships.     

Clock face drawing in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

The clock drawing test has been found to be sensitive to visual-spatial perception, graphomotor skills, verbal reasoning, and executive functioning in adult patient populations, as well as frontal lobe maturation in normal children. Our study is among the first to assess the use of clock drawing as a neuropsychological measure in the pediatric population. Participants included 41 children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and 41 normal controls, ages 6-12 years, matched for age, gender, and handedness. Conceptualization of time and construction of the clock face were assessed separately using a scoring system normed on school-age children in an earlier study. Children with Predominantly Inattentive Type were found to perform similarly to those with Combined Type of ADHD. However, children with ADHD, regardless of subtype, performed significantly poorer than controls. Qualitative analysis of performance revealed errors that were subsequent to poor planning during task execution, consistent with executive dysfunction commonly present in children with ADHD. Further, multiple regression analysis demonstrated that a neuropsychological measure of executive functioning was predictive of clock construction performance in children with ADHD. Constructional praxis and receptive vocabulary also were predictive of clock construction ability. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

注意缺陷多动障碍儿童的内隐视觉空间注意特点

目的:探讨注意缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)儿童被动和主动内隐视觉空间注意特点.方法:选取符合美国精神障碍诊断与统计手册第4版(DSM-Ⅳ)ADHD诊断标准的儿童25例,以及性别、年龄与之匹配的正常儿童18名.分别测试反映被动内隐视觉空间注意的pop-out视觉搜索任务及反映主动内隐视觉空间注意的线索-目标视觉搜索任务,比较两组反应时(RT)、正确率和个体内反应时标准差(ISD).结果:Pop-out视觉搜索任务中,ADHD儿童[(637.4±132.0) ms vs.(626.3±125.0) ms]和正常儿童[(635.5±131.1) ms vs.(626.6±138.5) ms]对左视野目标反应时均长于右视野(均P＜0.05),但是两组之间反应时、总体正确率差异无统计学意义(均P ＞0.05);正常儿童左视野正确率低于右视野[(92.3±9.4)％ vs.(94.5±8.1)％,P＜0.01],而ADHD儿童左右视野正确率差异无统计学意义[(91.9±7.4)％ vs.(90.7±7.5)％,P＞0.05],ADHD儿童ISD大于正常儿童[(185.4±48.0) ms vs.(137.5±36.7) ms,P＜0.01].线索-目标任务中,ADHD儿童和正常儿童对左视野的目标反应时均长于右视野[ADHD组,(641.1 ±94.2) ms vs.(629.1 ±83.1)ms;正常对照组,(626.3±128.6) ms vs.(614.9±133.1)ms;均P＜0.05],且线索提示有效目标反应时短于线索提示无效[ADHD组,(627.6±89.4) msvs.(654.3±84.6)ms,P＜0.01;正常对照组,(615.4±132.5) ms vs.(627.3 ±127.5) ms,P＜0.01];两组之间反应时和正确率差异无统计学意义,ADHD儿童ISD大于正常儿童[(200.1±46.8) ms vs.(147.8±32.8)ms,P=0.05].结论:与正常儿童相比,ADHD儿童无论是被动还是主动内隐视觉空间注意,其注意力状态均不稳定,波动性增大,注意力维持困难.     

Dynamic changes in quantitative electroencephalogram during continuous performance test in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

To establish whether dynamic EEG changes in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) differ from those observed in controls, the authors investigated the effect of the continuous performance test (CPT) on delta, theta, alpha and beta frequency bands. High-resolution electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded during eyes-open resting and CPT performance in 16 right-handed children meeting the DSM-IV criteria for ADHD and 16 age-matched controls. Significant CPT vs. eyes-open differences in EEG activities was observed in children with ADHD. In particular, switching to CPT induced an alpha power increase in children with ADHD and an alpha power decrease in controls. This may reflect a primary deficit associated with cortical hypoarousal in ADHD. These EEG results agree with behavioral findings leading the authors to suggest that dynamic changes in neural network activities are impaired in children with ADHD.     

学龄前注意缺陷多动障碍儿童的视觉-运动整合能力

目的:探讨学龄前注意缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)儿童的视觉-运动整合能力特点,为实施有针对性的早期干预方案提供依据.方法:采用1∶1病例对照的设计,选取符合美国精神障碍诊断与统计手册第4版(DSM-Ⅳ) ADHD诊断标准的4～6岁儿童(混合型37例、注意缺陷为主型28例、多动/冲动为主型14例)及正常对照各79例.采用视觉-运动整合发育测验(VMI)来评定视觉-运动整合情况.结果:ADHD儿童VMI测验异常检出率高于对照组(32.9％ vs.7.6％,P＜0.01);ADHD各亚型VMI测验异常检出率从高到低依次为混合型、注意缺陷为主型、多动/冲动为主型,各亚型组间差异均有统计学意义(45.9％ vs.25.0％ vs.14.3％,均P＜0.05);ADHD儿童的VMI测验得分低于正常对照组[(90.2±19.4) vs.(100.5±10.7),P＜0.05],混合型ADHD儿童的VMI测验得分低于注意缺陷为主型和多动/冲动为主型[(84.5±23.1) vs.(93.7±15.2),(97.9±11.5);均P＜0.05].结论:学龄前ADHD儿童可能存在视觉-运动整合能力方面的缺陷,对学龄前ADHD儿童视觉-运动整合能力的评估有助于早期识别和早期预防学习和行为问题.     

NREM sleep instability is reduced in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

STUDY OBJECTIVES: To evaluate non-rapid eye movement sleep instability (NREM), as measured by the cyclic alternating pattern (CAP), in a cohort of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and normal controls. DESIGN: Prospective study. SETTINGS: Sleep laboratory. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty consecutive outpatients with ADHD (18 boys and 2 girls; age range 6-13 years, mean age 9.3 years) and 20 normal children matched for age and socioeconomic status underwent polysomnographic recordings for 2 consecutive nights in a standard laboratory setting. Sleep was visually scored for sleep macrostructure and CAP, according to standard criteria. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Children with ADHD showed significantly reduced sleep duration and increased rate of stage shifts. All children with ADHD had an apnea-hypopnea index less than 1. Those with ADHD presented lower total CAP rates and lower CAP rates during sleep stage 2 than did normal controls. Moreover, in children with ADHD, we found a lower number of CAP sequences and a reduced total A1 index, mainly in light sleep (sleep stages 1 and 2). We did not find differences in A subtype percentages, but there was a longer duration of A1 subtypes in children with ADHD. CONCLUSIONS: Children with ADHD showed a lower CAP rate and a lower number of CAP sequences; this supports the hypothesis of the existence of a hypoarousal state in these patients.     

Attention-deficit disorder (attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder without hyperactivity): a neurobiologically and behaviorally distinct disorder from attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (with hyperactivity)

Most studies of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have focused on the combined type and emphasized a core problem in response inhibition. It is proposed here that the core problem in the truly inattentive type of ADHD (not simply the subthreshold combined type) is in working memory. It is further proposed that laboratory measures, such as complex-span and dual-task dichotic listening tasks, can detect this. Children with the truly inattentive type of ADHD, rather than being distractible, may instead be easily bored, their problem being more in motivation (underarousal) than in inhibitory control. Much converging evidence points to a primary disturbance in the striatum (a frontal-striatal loop) in the combined type of ADHD. It is proposed here that the primary disturbance in truly inattentive-type ADHD (ADD) is in the cortex (a frontal-parietal loop). Finally, it is posited that these are not two different types of ADHD, but two different disorders with different cognitive and behavioral profiles, different patterns of comorbidities, different responses to medication, and different underlying neurobiologies.     

Magnetic resonance imaging correlates of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children

This study compared magnetic resonance imaging size differences in several brain regions and neurocognitive function in a group of male and female children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with no comorbid learning disorders with a normal control group of children. The ADHD group demonstrated smaller total brain, superior prefrontal, and right superior prefrontal volumes, as well as significantly smaller areas for cerebellar lobules I-V and VIII-X, total corpus callosum area, and splenium. No group differences were observed for the inferior prefrontal, caudate, or cerebellar volumes, or for the area of cerebellar lobules VI-VII. In the ADHD group but not in the control group, greater right superior prefrontal volume predicted poorer performance on a test of sustained attention. Patterns of brain abnormality did not differ in male and female children with ADHD.     

Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Despite the vast literature supporting the efficacy of stimulant medication in the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), several limitations of pharmacological treatments highlight the clear need for effective psychosocial treatments to be identified. A large evidence base exists for behavioral interventions, including parent training and school interventions, which has resulted in their classification as "empirically validated treatments." Additionally, social skills training with generalization components, intensive summer treatment programs, and educational interventions appear promising in the treatment of ADHD. Given the chronic impairment children with ADHD experience across multiple domains of functioning, multimodal treatments are typically necessary to normalize the behavior of these children. The state of the ADHD treatment literature is reviewed, important gaps are identified (e.g., treatment for adolescents), and directions for future research are outlined within a developmental psychopathology framework.     

哌甲酯控释剂治疗对注意缺陷多动障碍儿童父母压力的影响

目的:探讨哌甲酯控释剂(OROS-MPH)治疗对注意缺陷多动障碍(attention deficit hyper-activity disorder,ADHD)患者临床症状和父母压力的影响。方法:采用自身对照研究设计,对符合美国精神障碍诊断与统计手册第四版(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fourth Edition,DSM-IV)诊断标准的73名ADHD患者(年龄6~15岁),使用哌甲酯控释剂(18~54mg/d)治疗8周。以父母填写的IOWA Conners量表及研究者填写的ADHD症状评定问卷评估患者的临床症状,并作为主要临床疗效评价指标,以父母填写的父母压力指数量表(Parenting Stress Index,PSI)来评估父母的压力,分别在基线、治疗4周末和8周末用以上问卷进行评估。结果:66名ADHD患儿完成了8周的治疗。经哌甲酯控释剂治疗后,ADHD患者IOWA Conners量表中的注意缺陷/多动因子分、对立/违抗因子分和总分随治疗时间下降(均P<0.001);ADHD症状评定问卷的注意缺陷因子分、多动冲动因子分和总分较服药前下降(均P<0.001);PSI量表的压力总分随时间明显下降(P<0.01),PSI量表中儿童方面分量表中,适应性、父母的接受度、要求、心境、注意不能/多动、父母的强制性6个因子得分均随着时间下降(均P<0.01);在父母方面分量表中,抑郁、角色的限制、配偶关系、孤独、健康状况5个因子得分均随着时间显著下降(均P<0.01)。基线时PSI总分与IOWA Conners量表总分、ADHD症状评定问卷总分呈正相关(r=0.346~0.902,均P<0.01)。结论:哌甲酯控释剂治疗能有效改善ADHD患者的临床症状和改善患者及其父母的压力,提高社会功能。     

Planning ability in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Planning ability was investigated in 26 patients diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adulthood and in 27 control participants, with groups matched for age, predicted IQ, and social class. They were tested using the 3-dimensional computerized Tower of London Test (Morris, Ahmed, Syed, & Toone, 1993; Morris, Rushe, Woodruffe, & Murray, 1995), which measures planning latencies as well as accuracy, with problems increasing in graded difficulty. For the control group, planning latencies increased systematically with task difficulty, with the participants slowing their initial responses to ensure accuracy. For those with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, there was no increase in planning time and a corresponding diminution in accuracy on the most difficult problems. This pattern of impairment is interpreted as resulting from failure to inhibit responses when confronted with problem solving, leading to reduced planning activity.