Effects of depressive symptoms and routinization on metamemory during adulthood

The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of aging, depressive symptoms and preference for routine on metamemory. Twenty-eight young adults (of mean age = 20.7 years) and 28 older adults (68.5 years) completed the metamemory in adulthood (MIA) scale for assessing various metamemory dimensions. Compared with young adults, older adults used more external strategy. They used more internal strategy but only those with high depressive symptoms or high routinization. Older adults also reported a less efficient memory than young adults, showing less capacity and more change. In addition, depressive symptoms influenced many MIA subscales: participants with high depressive symptoms reported more external strategy use, less capacity, more change and less locus than participants with low depressive symptoms. Finally, highly routinized participants reported more use of external strategy and experienced more anxiety about memory. These results confirm the impact of aging on metamemory and show that an increase in depressive symptoms even without a depressive state and routinization also influences metamemory. This study shows the need to consider variables that modify memory perception during aging.     

Association between physical activity and cognition in Mexican and Korean older adults

IntroductionAs the world's population ages, the prevalence of cognitive impairment associated with age increases. This increase is particularly pronounced in Asia and South-America. The objective of this study was to investigate separately the longitudinal association of physical activity and cognitive function in; older adults in Mexico and South Korea.Materials and MethodsThis is a secondary analysis of two surveys, The Mexican Health and aging Study (MHAS) (n = 5853) and Korean Longitudinal Study of aging (KLoSA) (n = 5188), designed to study the aging process of older adults living in Mexico and South Korea. Participants older than 50 years were selected from rural and urban areas achieving a representative sample. Physical activity was assessed using self-report. Cognition was assessed using Cross-Cultural Cognitive Examination (CCCE) and Minimental state examination (MMSE) in Mexico and South Korea respectively. Here we investigate the longitudinal association between physical activity and cognition during 3 years for MHAS and 4 years for KLoSA using multiple linear regression analyses.ResultsThe prevalence of physical activity was 40.68 % in MHAS and 35.57 % in KLoSA. In the adjusted longitudinal multivariate analysis, an independent association was found between physical activity and MMSE score OR 0.0866 (CI 0.0266-0.1467 p-value 0.0047) in the Korean older adults, while there was no significant association in MHAS.ConclusionsPhysical activity could have a protective effect on the cognitive decline associated with aging in the Korean population.     

Routinization and emotional well-being: an experience sampling investigation in an elderly French sample

This investigation examined the predictive validity of routinization preference measures, as well as the association of routinization to state affect in daily life. The authors collected naturalistic repeated observations from elderly participants living in private residences or retirement homes. Preferences for routinization were significantly associated with the repetition of both behaviors and environmental contexts. Routines were associated with decreases in positive affect in within-person analyses but had no association to anxious or depressed mood states. The findings are discussed in terms of the complexity of the routinization concept and its relevance for understanding emotional well-being in elderly people.     

Executive function, working memory, and medication adherence among older adults

The purpose of this study was to investigate the association between cognitive processes and medication adherence among community-dwelling older adults. Ninety-five participants (M = 78 years) completed a battery of cognitive assessments including measures of executive function, working memory, cued recall, and recognition memory. Medication adherence was examined over 8 weeks for one prescribed medicine by use of an electronic medication-monitoring cap. In a simultaneous regression, the composite of executive function and working memory tasks was the only significant predictor (beta =.44, p <.01). Findings suggest that assessments of executive function and working memory can be used to identify community-dwelling older adults who may be at risk for failure to take medicines as prescribed.     

Effects of aging on the relationship between cognitive demand and step variability during dual-task walking

A U-shaped relationship between cognitive demand and gait control may exist in dual-task situations, reflecting opposing effects of external focus of attention and attentional resource competition. The purpose of the study was twofold: to examine whether gait control, as evaluated from step-to-step variability, is related to cognitive task difficulty in a U-shaped manner and to determine whether age modifies this relationship. Young and older adults walked on a treadmill without attentional requirement and while performing a dichotic listening task under three attention conditions: non-forced (NF), forced-right (FR), and forced-left (FL). The conditions increased in their attentional demand and requirement for inhibitory control. Gait control was evaluated by the variability of step parameters related to balance control (step width) and rhythmic stepping pattern (step length and step time). A U-shaped relationship was found for step width variability in both young and older adults and for step time variability in older adults only. Cognitive performance during dual tasking was maintained in both young and older adults. The U-shaped relationship, which presumably results from a trade-off between an external focus of attention and competition for attentional resources, implies that higher-level cognitive processes are involved in walking in young and older adults. Specifically, while these processes are initially involved only in the control of (lateral) balance during gait, they become necessary for the control of (fore-aft) rhythmic stepping pattern in older adults, suggesting that attentional resources turn out to be needed in all facets of walking with aging. Finally, despite the cognitive resources required by walking, both young and older adults spontaneously adopted a “posture second” strategy, prioritizing the cognitive task over the gait task.     

Time estimation and aging: a comparison between young and elderly adults

Studies about effects of aging on the estimation of short temporal intervals are not conclusive. The aim of the present research was to evaluate age-related differences in the reproduction of a short interval (10 s) using a computerized method. The sample comprised thirteen young adults (M = 26.15 years) and twelve elderly adults (M= 79.1 years). Three parameters of time estimation were measured: estimated time, absolute error, and standard deviation. Results showed that time estimates performed by elderly participants were shorter than those of younger ones, although there were no significant differences between the two age groups in the percentage of absolute errors or standard deviations. These findings could be explained by changes in the rate of the internal clock or to an interaction between more general changes in cognitive processes.     

Transfer of a speed of processing intervention to near and far cognitive functions

BACKGROUND: Evidence establishing the potential for modification of cognitive functioning in later adulthood has begun to accumulate. OBJECTIVE: The primary goal of the current study was to evaluate, among older adults, the extent to which standardized speed of processing training transfers to similar and dissimilar speeded cognitive measures as well as to other domains of cognitive functioning. METHODS: Ninety-seven older adults (mean age 73.71 years) were administered a battery of cognitive tests assessing intelligence, memory, attention, verbal fluency, visual-perceptual ability, speed of processing, and functional abilities. Forty-four of the participants received ten 1-hour sessions of speed of processing training. The remainder of participants were in a no-contact control group. Approximately 6 weeks after the pretraining assessment, all participants repeated the same battery of tests. RESULTS: The results revealed training effects for some speed of processing measures, including performance of instrumental activities of daily living, but no transfer to other domains of cognitive functioning. CONCLUSION: Speed of processing training may enhance the speed at which older adults can perform instrumental activities of daily living.     

Einstellungen zum eigenen Altern: Eine Alters- oder eine Ressourcenfrage?

Recent studies have demonstrated that positive and negative stereotypes and attitudes toward age and aging may have substantial effects on the longterm development of cognitive and physical performance in old age. Relatively little is known to which degree attitudes toward one's own aging depend on (a) the current level of individual resources, (b) changes in the level of individual resources, or (c) the increasing age of older persons. The present study examined the relations between individual physical, mental, and cognitive resources and the attitudes toward one's own aging. The study was conducted with N=500 participants of the Interdisciplinary Longitudinal Study of Adult Development (ILSE) born between 1930 and 1932 (age: M=63.0, SD=0.9 at T1 and M=66.9, SD=0.9 at T2). The results indicate that the attitudes toward one's own aging (a) become more negative with increasing age, (b) most strongly depend on the available resources, (c) changes in level of resources contribute to the prediction of the attitudes toward one's own aging, and (d) age acts more as a reinforcing factor on the relation between resources and attitudes than as an independent factor on the attitudes toward one's own aging.     

Accuracy and qualities of real and suggested memories: nonspecific age differences

This study examined adult age differences in the accuracy, confidence ratings, and vividness ratings of veridical and suggested memories. After seeing either one or two exposures of a vignette depicting a theft, young adults (M = 19 years) and older adults (M = 73 years) were given misleading information that suggested the presence of particular objects in the episode. Memory accuracy was higher for younger adults than for older adults, and the frequency of falsely reporting the presence of suggested objects was greater for older adults than for young adults. Further, levels of confidence and vividness ratings of the perceptual attributes (colors, locations) of falsely recognized items were higher for older adults than for young adults. Both young adults and older adults used more perceptual references when describing veridical memories than when describing suggested memories. Age differences in the suggestibility of memory were attributed to nonspecific or nondissociated memory aging effects.     

Cognitive effort in modality retrieval by young and older adults

A secondary task methodology was used to determine whether the retrieval of modality information is more cognitively effortful for older adults than younger ones. Young (M age = 20 years) and older (M age = 68 years) adults were asked to learn a mixed modality (auditory and visual) list of nouns. During recall of words and modality, subjects were asked to respond to a randomly presented light signal. Cognitive effort for the primary task (recall) was measured by interference with the signal detection task. Adding a modality identification task to word retrieval did not significantly increase cognitive effort for either age group, although young adults were better at both word and modality recall and word recall itself was more effortful for older adults. Results suggest that age decements in modality learning cannot be explained by greater cognitive effort during retrieval of information about modality.     

Cognitive influence on postural stability: a neuromuscular analysis in young and older adults

BACKGROUND: Previous literature indicates that attentional resources are required for recovery of postural stability. Previous studies have also examined the effect of aging on the performance of a static postural task while a secondary cognitive task is being conducted. This study describes the effect of a cognitive task on the neuromuscular response characteristics underlying reactive balance control in young versus older adults. METHODS: The attentional demand on the neuromuscular system was examined in 14 young and 12 healthy older adults by analysis of the integrated electromyography activity while the adults were performing a dual-task paradigm. The primary task involved standing platform perturbations and the secondary task was a math task that involved subtraction by threes. Integrated electromyography activity was compared between the cognitive (math and balance) task versus control (balance only) task. RESULTS: For both groups of subjects, onset latency of postural muscle responses did not change under dual-task conditions. In contrast, the amplitude of postural muscle activity was significantly affected by performance of a secondary task. When electromyography data were combined for both young and older adults, there was a decrease in muscle response amplitude in both agonist (gastrocnemius) and antagonist (tibialis anterior) muscles when the cognitive math task was performed. This was apparent at 350-500 milliseconds from plate onset for the gastrocnemius and between 150 and 500 for the tibialis anterior. When young and older adults were compared, an age by task interaction effect was seen in muscle response amplitude for the agonist (gastrocnemius) muscle between 350 to 500 milliseconds, with older adults showing a significantly greater reduction than young adults. CONCLUSION: The decline of muscle activity when the secondary task was performed suggests that less attentional processing capacity was available for balance control during the dual-task paradigm. The results also indicate that the dual-task activity has a greater impact on balance control in the older adults than in the young adults.     

Factor structure and psychometric properties of the center for epidemiologic studies depression scale (CES-D) in older populations with and without cognitive impairment

The CES-D is widely used for the assessment of depressive symptoms in the adult population. However, few studies have been performed to assess the utility of this scale in an older population with cognitive impairment. The factor structure of the Spanish version of the CES-D was examined in an observational, cross sectional study in 623 older adults (M = 72.74 years; SD = 7.7). The validity of the scale was determined in two samples of older adults, one comprising 162 participants with cognitive impairment (M = 76.73 years; SD = 8.1) and one with 58 participants without cognitive impairment (M = 74.64 years; SD = 9.0). The results confirm previous results of a four factor structure. With regard to the validity of the scale, in the group with cognitive impairment the area under the ROC curve is 0.84 (95% CI: 0.77-0.89) and the cut-off point for possible depression is 13, while in the group without cognitive impairment the area is 0.90 (95% CI: 0.79-0.96) and the optimal cut-off point is 28. These results show that the Spanish version of the CES-D is a valid instrument for the identification of depression in older adults with and without cognitive impairment.     

The locus of age x health-related physical fitness interactions in serial choice responding as a function of task complexity: central processing or motor function?

The extent to which health-related physical fitness (HRF) attenuates age differences in psychomotor speed as a function of task complexity was examined in a sample of 48 men. Physiological measures were used to assign participants to fitness group (n1-4- = 12): young less fit (mean age = 25.83 years), young fitter (mean age = 25.08 years), old less fit (mean age = 71.83 years), old fitter (mean age = 66.75 years). A serial choice reaction time (RT) task was used in which three conditions of two, four, or eight choices were administered. RTs for the choice and motor components of the task were recorded separately. A significant Age x HRF interaction was found in relation to choice RT but not motor time; older less fit individuals underperformed older fitter participants, and younger adults regardless of fitness level. This interaction remained significant having statistically controlled for motor function, suggesting benefits to central processing. The strength of this interaction did not increase as a function of task complexity. The findings suggest an association between HRF and psychomotor speed, and support the view that physically active lifestyles should be encouraged among older adults.     

The Locus of Age × Health-Related Physical Fitness Interactions in Serial Choice Responding as a Function of Task Complexity: Central Processing or Motor Function?

The extent to which health-related physical fitness (HRF) attenuates age differences in psychomotor speed as a function of task complexity was examined in a sample of 48 men. Physiological measures were used to assign participants to fitness group (n 1-4 = 12): young less fit (mean age = 25.83 years), young fitter (mean age = 25.08 years), old less fit (mean age = 71.83 years), old fitter (mean age = 66.75 years). A serial choice reaction time (RT) task was used in which three conditions of two, four, or eight choices were administered. RTs for the choice and motor components of the task were recorded separately. A significant Age 2 HRF interaction was found in relation to choice RT but not motor time; older less fit individuals underperformed older fitter participants, and younger adults regardless of fitness level. This interaction remained significant having statistically controlled for motor function, suggesting benefits to central processing. The strength of this interaction did not increase as a function of task complexity. The findings suggest an association between HRF and psychomotor speed, and support the view that physically active lifestyles should be encouraged among older adults.     

Cognitive and non-cognitive variables influencing age-related effect of mind wandering across the adult life span

This study aimed to assess the effects of aging on mind wandering (MW) using a sustained attention to response task (SART) with a low cognitive demand. All task-unrelated thoughts (TUTs) and the subcategory of stimulus-independent thoughts (SITUTs) were examined across the adult life span. The relationship between MW, cognitive variables (attention, inhibition, working memory), and non-cognitive variables (mindfulness, psychological well-being, and anxiety) was investigated. The sample included 210 healthy participants from 20 to 89 years old. The overall results showed few or no age-related changes in both TUTs and SITUTs. Path analyses revealed that the effect of age on both TUTs and SITUTs was only indirect and mediated by attentional resources, as well as by some aspects of psychological well-being (i.e., emotional competence), which had a direct effect, however. These findings raise doubts about any age-related differences between young and older adults’ MW. Changes in MW across the adult life span are thus discussed along with the method and tasks used to assess it and different variables affecting it.     

Prospective predictors of successful aging in community-residing and institutionalized Canadian elderly

This study examined the unique and combined contribution of existential variables (purpose in life, religiousness, and death acceptance) and traditional resource measures (social resources, intellectual competence, and cognitive competence) as prospective predictors of successful aging in community-residing and institutionalized older adults. Using multiple hierarchical regression, the results showed that baseline successful aging, social resources, purpose in life, and low religiousness predicted successful aging in community-residing elderly 14 months later; baseline successful aging, social resources, purpose in life, and being of male gender predicted successful aging in institutionalized elderly. Intellectual and cognitive competence and death acceptance failed to account for significant variance in successful aging, although the latter approached significance in the community-residing older adults. In both samples, the existential variable of purpose in life accounted for unique variance in successful aging over and above that accounted for by demographic, baseline successful aging, and traditional predictors. The important role of existential constructs in promoting successful aging in community-residing and institutionalized elderly is discussed. Gary T. Reker is a full professor in the Department of Psychology of Trent University. His research interests have focused on the aging process, particularly in the role of personal optimism and personal meaning in wellness promotion. This work was supported by a Population Aging Grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. The work was begun by Paul T.P. Wong and Gary T. Reker and continued by Gary T. Reker under grants from the Trent University Research Fund.     

Supporting Arthritis and Employment Across the Life Course: A Qualitative Study

Objective

To examine the need for and availability and use of formal and informal workplace resources and to uncover differences across the life course in adults with arthritis.

Methods

Focus groups and interviews were conducted with young (aged 18–34 years; n = 7), middle‐aged (35–54 years; n = 13), and older adults (≥55 years; n = 25) with a diagnosis of inflammatory arthritis, osteoarthritis, or other rheumatic disease. Participants were asked about their employment experiences, formal and informal workplace resource needs, and availability and use of workplace resources. Differences based on chronological, functional, psychosocial, organizational, and lifespan dimensions of age were examined. A modified grounded theory approach was used to inductively analyze the data.

Results

Young, middle‐aged, and older adult participants required similar workplace resources. Across all participants, scheduling modifications tended to be the most needed workplace resource. In contrast, the perceived availability and use of formal workplace resources differed among participants. Young adult participants and those who were newer to their jobs reported that workplace resources were less available and utilized. Middle‐aged and older adults reported greater availability of workplace resources. Scheduling accommodations and at‐work modifications were the workplace resources that were used most by middle‐aged and older adults, respectively.

Conclusion

Similar workplace resources could meet the employment needs of individuals with arthritis across the life course. Attention should be paid to young adults and those who are new to their jobs, because they may perceive more barriers to accessing formal workplace resources and be susceptible to work disability.

     

The mediating and moderating effects of depressive symptoms on the prospective association between cognitive function and activities of daily living disability in older adults

ObjectivesThis study aimed to examine to what extent depressive symptoms mediated and moderated the association between cognitive function and activities of daily living (ADL) disability in older adults.MethodsIn older participants from the China Health and Longitudinal Retirement Survey (CHARLS), structural equation modeling and multiple regression were performed to examine the mediating and moderating role of depressive symptoms (measured by the 10-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale) in the association between baseline cognitive function (episodic memory, attention, orientation to time, and visuospatial ability) and endpoint disability in basic ADL (BADL) or instrumental ADL (IADL).ResultsOver a 2-year follow-up, among 1677 participants (67.5 ± 6.0 years old) free of BADL disability and 1194 participants (66.9 ± 5.6 years old) free of IADL disability, 8.3% and 22.9% developed BADL disability and IADL disability, respectively. Good baseline cognitive performance was significantly associated with the reduced incidence of BADL/IADL disability. The indirect effects of baseline depressive symptoms explained 16.9% and 14.5% of the total effect between cognition and BADL and IADL dependency, respectively. The Johnson-Neyman technique identified a threshold of 7.88 for endpoint depressive symptoms, beyond which the protective effect of baseline cognitive function on BADL emerged.ConclusionsIn older adults, good cognitive function reduces the risk of BADL/IADL disability. Depressive symptoms downregulate the protective effect of cognitive function on BADL/IADL over time. Intervention techniques focusing on the simultaneous improvement of cognitive dimensions and depression help improve ADL difficulty and prevent disability in older adults.     

Cognitive and Everyday Functioning in Older and Younger Adults With and Without HIV

The purpose of this study was to: (1) examine cognitive performance differences in older and younger adults with and without HIV, and (2) determine if such differences were related to a laboratory measure of instrumental activities of daily living. Ninety-eight HIV-positive (69 younger, 29 older) and 103 HIV-negative (84 younger, 19 older) adults were evaluated on a number of cognitive measures. Controlling for a number of confounders, age by HIV status interactions were found on two cognitive measures, indicating poorer cognitive performance for those aging with HIV. Poorer performance on these cognitive measures corresponded with poorer performance on the Timed Instrumental Activities of Daily Living test. These findings suggest that as adults age with HIV, they may be at risk for cognitive declines that would impair their ability to engage in activities important for maintaining independent living.     

Positive Psychological Factors are Linked to Successful Cognitive Aging Among Older Persons Living with HIV/AIDS

We aimed to characterize successful cognitive aging (SCA) among older HIV-infected (HIV+) and HIV-uninfected (HIV?) adults, and to determine associations with positive psychological factors and health-related quality of life (HRQoL). Ninety-nine HIV+ and 46 HIV? older adults (≥ 50 years) completed measures of neurocognition, positive psychological factors, and HRQoL. Using study-defined SCA criteria (i.e., no cognitive or everyday impairment or major depressive disorder), we compared positive psychological factors and HRQoL across four groups: HIV+/SCA+, HIV+/SCA?, HIV?/SCA+, HIV?/SCA?. SCA was identified in 29% of the HIV+ sample compared to 61% of the HIV? sample (p < 0.01). HIV+/SCA+ participants had higher scores on 8 of 10 measures of positive psychological factors as well as better HRQoL (ps < 0.05) as compared to the HIV+/SCA? group. Furthermore, the HIV+/SCA+ participants had comparable scores on these factors as HIV? adults. Fewer HIV+ than HIV? participants met SCA criteria; however, the level of positive psychological factors among the HIV+/SCA+ group was comparable to the HIV? sample. Our findings present opportunities for interventions to optimize positive psychological factors and potentially improve SCA among older HIV+ adults.