Perceptions about the local neighborhood and walking and cycling among children

BACKGROUND: This study examined associations between perceptions of the local neighborhood and walking and cycling among children. METHODS: Children aged 5-6 years (n=291) and 10-12 years (n=919) were recruited from 19 Australian primary schools. Parents reported their child's usual walking or cycling to local destinations and their perceptions of their neighborhood. Ten- to twelve-year-olds were asked their perceptions of traffic, strangers, road safety and sporting venues, and their perceptions of their parent's views on these issues. RESULTS: Five- to six-year-old boys whose parents believed there was heavy traffic in their area were 2.8 times more likely (95%CI=1.1-6.8), and 5- to 6-year-old girls whose parents owned more than one car were 70% less likely (95%CI=0.1-0.8), and whose parents believed that public transport was limited in their area were 60% less likely (95%CI=0.2-0.9) than other children to walk or cycle at least three times per week. Parental belief that there were no lights or crossings was associated with walking or cycling among 10- to 12-year-old boys (OR=0.4, 95%CI=0.2-0.7). Among older girls, parent's belief that their child needed to cross several roads to reach play areas (OR=0.4, 95%CI=0.2-0.8) and that there is limited public transport in their area (OR=0.7, 95%CI=0.4-0.97), and child's belief that there were no parks or sports grounds near home (OR=0.5, 95%CI=0.3-0.8) were associated with a lower likelihood of walking or cycling. CONCLUSION: Perceptions of the local neighborhood may influence children's physical activity.     

Active commuting and perceptions of the route environment: A longitudinal analysis

ObjectiveTo assess associations between changes in perceptions of the environment en route to work and changes in active commuting.Methods655 commuters in Cambridge, UK reported perceptions of their commuting route and past-week commuting trips in postal questionnaires in 2009 and 2010. Associations between changes in route perceptions and changes in time spent walking and cycling, proportion of car trips, and switching to or from the car on the commute were modelled using multivariable regression.ResultsChanges in only a few perceptions were associated with changes in travel behaviour. Commuters who reported that it became less pleasant to walk recorded a 6% (95% CI: 1, 11) net increase in car trips and a 12 min/week (95% CI: − 1, − 24) net decrease in walking. Increases in the perceived danger of cycling or of crossing the road were also associated with increases in car trips. Increases in the perceived convenience of public transport (OR: 3.31, 95% CI: 1.27, 8.63) or safety of cycling (OR: 3.70, 95% CI: 1.44, 9.50) were associated with taking up alternatives to the car.ConclusionsInterventions to improve the safety of routes and convenience of public transport may help promote active commuting and should be evaluated.     

Linking perceptions of neighbourhood to health in Hamilton, Canada

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To investigate the association between perceptions of neighbourhood physical and social characteristics and three health outcomes (self assessed health status, chronic conditions, and emotional distress). DESIGN: Cross sectional survey data analysed in small neighbourhoods. SETTING: Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, a medium sized industrial city, located at the western end of Lake Ontario (population at the time of the study about 380 000). PARTICIPANTS: Random sample of 1504 adults aged 18 years and older residing in four contrasting neighbourhoods. MAIN RESULTS: Significant differences across the four neighbourhoods are apparent in self assessed health status and emotional distress, but not in chronic conditions. Neighbourhoods with lower SES reported poorer health and more emotional distress. Perceptions of the physical environment dominated social concerns in all neighbourhoods. For all three health outcomes, individual risk factors followed expectations, with measures of poverty, age, and lifestyle all significantly associated with poor health outcomes. Physical environmental problems were positively and significantly associated with poor physical and emotional health. Specifically, people reporting they dislike aspects of their neighbourhood's physical environment are 1.5 times more likely to report chronic health conditions (OR 1.56, 95% CI 1.19 to 2.05), while those reporting physical likes with their neighbourhood are less likely to report fair/poor health (OR 0.50, 95% CI 0.28 to 0.90) or emotional distress (OR 0.45, 95% CI 0.26 to 0.80). CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate the importance of neighbourhood perceptions as a determinant of health, as well as conventional factors such as low income, lifestyle, and age. The dominance of physical environmental concerns may have arisen from the industrial nature of Hamilton, but this result merits further investigation.     

Features of the neighborhood environment and walking by U.S. adults

BACKGROUND: Manipulating the physical environment may be an efficacious way to promote physical activity. This study examined the relationships between features of the neighborhood environment and walking in the neighborhood by U.S. adults. METHODS: A random sample of women (n =266) and men (n =208) aged >18 years participated. Door-to-door interviews were conducted in 2003 to collect information about demographics, walking behavior, and features of the neighborhood environment. RESULTS: The analyses conducted in 2004 revealed that women were more likely to walk for exercise (odds ratio [OR]=4.6, 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.01-20.72) or walk a dog (OR=3.3, 95% CI=1.01-11.08) in the neighborhood if neighborhood safety was average as opposed to below average (p <0.05). Women with an average number of neighborhood destinations were more likely to walk for transportation in the neighborhood (OR=5.7, 95% CI=1.63-19.73) than women with a below average number of neighborhood destinations (p <0.01). In men, none of the neighborhood features were significantly associated with walking for exercise or walking a dog. Men were less likely to walk for transportation in the neighborhood if the functional (OR=0.22, 95% CI=0.06-0.89) or aesthetic (OR=0.17, 95% CI=0.03-0.89) features of the neighborhood were average versus below average. CONCLUSIONS: Prospective studies are needed to determine if changes in neighborhood safety and awareness of neighborhood destinations promote increases in walking by women. Evaluations of the relationships between other environmental features and walking behavior in men are warranted.     

Encouraging physical activity through dog walking: why don't some owners walk with their dog?

OBJECTIVE: To identify factors associated with owners not walking with their dog. METHOD: Dog owners (n=629) taking part in the RESIDE study, Perth, Western Australia completed a self-administered questionnaire in 2005-06 that included items about the dog, dog-owner relationship, dog walking and intrapersonal and environmental factors associated with dog walking. Physical activity data were also collected using NPAQ. RESULTS: Overall, 23% of dog owners did not walk with their dog. More dog walkers achieved 150 min of physical activity/week than owners who did not walk with their dog (72% vs. 44%, p<0.001). Not walking with a dog was significantly more likely in owners who did not perceive that their dog provided motivation (OR 9.60, 95% CI: 4.37, 21.08) or social support (OR 10.84, 95% CI: 5.15, 22.80) to walk, independent of other well-known correlates of physical activity. CONCLUSION: There would be a significant impact on community physical activity levels if owners who do not walk with their dog could be persuaded to begin dog walking. Understanding the factors that discourage or facilitate owners to walk with their dog will assist in tailoring interventions designed to encourage both the uptake and maintenance of regular dog walking.     

Predictors of change in physical activity during and after pregnancy: Project Viva

BACKGROUND: Few studies document longitudinal changes in physical activity from prepregnancy to the postpartum period. METHODS: This study estimated change in self-reported leisure-time physical activity in 1442 women before pregnancy, during the second trimester, and at 6 months postpartum. In addition, it also examined predictors of becoming insufficiently active during or after pregnancy. RESULTS: The mean (SD) age was 32.5 (4.5) years, 34% of the women were overweight or obese prepregnancy (body mass index equal to or greater than 25 kg/m(2)), and 76% were white. Before pregnancy, the mean total leisure physical activity was 9.6 hours per week. The reported decrease in total activity between prepregnancy and 6 months postpartum was -1.4 (95% CI=-1.0 to -1.9) hours per week, accounted for by decreases in moderate and vigorous physical activity but not walking. Prevalence of insufficiently active lifestyle (less than 150 minutes per week of total activity) increased from 12.6% before pregnancy to 21.7% during the postpartum period. The OR for becoming insufficiently active during pregnancy was 1.58 (95% CI=1.07-2.32) in women with at least one child compared with no children. Predictors of becoming insufficiently active postpartum included postpartum weight retention (OR=1.31; 95% CI=1.05-1.58 for each 5-kg increment); working longer hours in the first trimester (e.g., OR=5.12; 95% CI=1.96-13.4 for 45+ vs 0 hours); and reporting that lack of child care was a barrier to physical activity (OR=1.73; 95% CI=0.99-3.02). CONCLUSIONS: Women reported decreases in moderate and vigorous physical activity during pregnancy that persisted at 6 months postpartum. Levels of walking did not decline. Children in the home, longer work hours, and lack of child care were predictors of becoming insufficiently active during or after pregnancy.     

Built Environment and Physical Activity for Transportation in Adults from Curitiba,Brazil

The goal of this study was to assess the association between features of the built environment and levels of walking and cycling as forms of transportation in the city of Curitiba, Brazil. Data collection was conducted through a telephone survey in 2008. The International Physical Activity Questionnaire was used to identify walking or cycling as forms of transportation. The built environment characteristics were obtained through the Geographic Information System for 1,206 adults. Density indicators were computed, considering a radius of 500 m around each individual's household. For the accessibility measures, the shortest distance to selected built environment features (e.g., bus stop, bike path) was used. The association between characteristics of the environment and the practice of walking or cycling was assessed through logistic regressions. After considering individual characteristics, higher-income areas (OR?=?0.56, 95 % CI?=?0.41–0.76), higher density of Bus Rapid Transit stations (OR?=?1.50, 95 % CI?=?1.22–1.84), and the proportion of residential (OR?=?1.25, 95 % CI?=?1.02–1.53) and commercial (OR?=?1.47, 95 % CI?=?1.13–1.91) areas were associated with any walking prevalence (≥10 min/week). Higher access to bike paths (OR?=?0.80, 95 % CI?=?0.64–1.00) was inversely associated with walking at recommended levels (≥150 min/week). Higher-income areas (OR?=?0.26, 95 % CI?=?0.08–0.81), greater number of traffic lights (OR?=?0.27, 95 % CI?=?0.09–0.88), and higher land use mix (OR?=?0.52, 95 % CI?=?0.31–0.88) were inversely associated with cycling. The neighborhood built environment may affect active commuting among adults living in urban centers in middle-income countries.     

Leisure-time exercise and overall physical activity in older women caregivers and non-caregivers from the Caregiver-SOF Study

BACKGROUND: Elderly caregivers report less leisure-time physical activity than same-aged non-caregivers. However, through caregiving tasks, caregivers may be as physically active as non-caregivers. This study compared leisure-time exercise and overall physical activity in elderly women caregivers and non-caregivers. METHODS: The sample included 179 caregivers (153 cared for spouses and 26 for other relatives or friends) and 670 non-caregivers who were participants in the Study of Osteoporotic Fractures. Leisure-time exercise was based on respondents' report of walking for exercise or other regular exercise at least once a week. High overall physical activity included leisure-time exercise or being in the top quartile of walking and climbing stairs during one's daily routine. RESULTS: Leisure-time exercise was lower in spouse caregivers (adjusted odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.64, 0.41-1.00) and non-spouse caregivers (OR = 0.39, 95% CI = 0.16-0.95) than married non-caregivers. Differences in overall physical activity between caregivers and married non-caregivers were smaller and not statistically significant. Caregivers who climbed stairs at least 15 min/day during caregiving tasks reported more overall physical activity than non-caregivers (OR = 4.06, 95% CI = 1.23-13.36). CONCLUSIONS: Studies comparing physical activity in caregivers and non-caregivers should assess activities performed during routine caregiving tasks.     

Perceptions of the built environment in relation to physical activity in Portuguese adolescents

In this study, we investigated the association between perceptions of the built environment and physical activity among Portuguese boys and girls. Participants were 1124 adolescents (592 girls and 532 boys) 12- to 18-years-old. Physical activity and perceptions of environmental characteristics were assessed by self-report questionnaires. Significantly more girls (p<0.01) were classified as low-active (61.5%) compared to boys (22.9%). Logistic regression analyses (adjusted for age) showed a significant association between girl's physical activity and availability of free- or low-cost recreational facilities in the neighbourhood (OR=1.44; 95% CI 0.99–2.11). Among boys, the presence of people being active in the neighbourhood was associated with higher levels of physical activity (OR=1.59; 95% CI 1.05–2.40). Perceptions of some aspects of neighbourhood environment may relate differently to participation in physical activity for boys compared to girls.     

Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and sedentary behaviours in relation to body mass index-defined and waist circumference-defined obesity

The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationships of physical activity types and sedentary behaviour with BMI and waist circumference (WC). The sample comprised 6215 adults (2775 men, 3440 women) aged 16 years and over living in Scotland. Self-reported physical activity of moderate to vigorous intensity (MVIA) included domestic activity, walking, and sports and exercises. MVIA levels were classified as being inactive, being insufficiently active, being sufficiently active for general health benefits and being sufficiently active for obesity prevention. Sedentary time was defined as television and other screen-based entertainment time (TVSE). Dependent variables were BMI-defined obesity (BMI-OB) and WC-defined obesity (WC-OB). TVSE was positively related to both WC-OB (adjusted OR 1.69 (95 % CI 1.39, 2.05) for > or = 4 h of TVSE per d compared with < 2 h/d) and BMI-OB (OR 1.88; 95 % CI 1.51, 2.35) independently of MVIA. Those classified as most active who reported > or = 4 h/d of TVSE had higher prevalence of BMI-OB (18.9 v. 8.3 %; P < 0.05) and WC-OB (28.0 v. 10.0 %; P < 0.01) than those equally active with < 2 h/d of TVSE. Sports and walking were related inversely to WC-OB (OR for no time compared with > or = 30 min/d: 1.55 (95 % CI 1.24, 1.94); 2.06 (95 % CI 1.64, 2.58)), but only walking was related to BMI-OB (OR 1.94; 95 % CI 1.58, 2.37). Domestic physical activity was not related to BMI-OB or WC-OB. In conclusion, physical activity and sedentary behaviour are independently related to obesity. Public health recommendations should both promote physical activity and discourage engagement in sedentary pursuits.     

Wheeling Walks: a community campaign using paid media to encourage walking among sedentary older adults

BACKGROUND: Mass media may effect communitywide changes in health awareness, attitude, and behavior, but the approach remains unproven for physical activity. METHODS: Wheeling Walks promoted walking among sedentary 50- to 65-year-old adults in a West Virginia city of 31,420 people. This quasi-experimental communication intervention used theory of planned behavior and transtheoretical model constructs to change behavior by promoting 30 min of daily walking through paid media, public relations, and public health activities. Impact was determined by pre- and postintervention telephone surveys with 719 adults in the intervention community and 753 adults in the comparison community and observations of walkers at 10 community sites. RESULTS: Behavior observation showed a 23% increase in the number of walkers in the intervention community versus no change in the comparison community (OR = 1.31, 95% CI = 1.14-1.50). Thirty-two percent (32.2) of the baseline sedentary population in the intervention community reported meeting the CDC/ACSM/Surgeon General recommendation for moderate-intensity physical activity by walking at least 30 min at least five times per week versus 18.0% in the comparison community (OR = 2.12, 95% CI = 1.41-2.24). The intervention community also realized a pre to post increase in positive stage change (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: This theory-based mass media campaign demonstrated increases in those meeting the recommended standard for moderate-intensity physical activity through walking and significant positive stage change.     

The Effects of Length of Residence and Exposure to Violence on Perceptions of Neighborhood Safety in an Urban Sample

Perceptions of neighborhood safety shape the well-being of individuals and communities, affecting neighborhood walkability, associated physical activity behaviors, and health conditions. However, less is known about the factors that determine perceptions of safety. One factor that may affect perceptions of neighborhood safety is the length of time someone has lived in their neighborhood. We use a representative, adult sample of urban low-income residents from the 2015 New Haven Health Survey (n?=?1189) to investigate the associations between length of residence (new residents of < 1 year in neighborhood versus longer-term residents of 1 or more years in neighborhood) and perceptions of neighborhood safety (whether feeling unsafe to walk at night). We then examine the potential moderating effect of exposure to neighborhood violence on these associations. We find that the association between length of residence and perceived safety differs by exposure to neighborhood violence. Among those unexposed to neighborhood violence, longer-term neighborhood residents were more likely to feel unsafe compared to new residents (OR?=?2.03, 95% CI 1.19, 3.45). Additionally, the effect of exposure to violence on feelings of safety was larger for new residents (OR = 9.10, 95% CI 2.72, 30.44) compared to longer-term residents (OR = 1.88, 95% CI 1.28, 2.77). Our findings suggest that length of residence may have implications for feelings of safety, and that experiences of violence may uniquely contribute to feelings of unsafety among new residents. These findings hold implications for interventions and policy efforts aimed at neighborhood safety improvements through community development, housing, or city urban planning initiatives, particularly for new neighborhood residents or those who experience neighborhood violence.     

Personal, social and environmental correlates of resilience to physical inactivity among women from socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds

While sex and socio-economic disparities in physical activity have been well documented, not all disadvantaged women are inactive. This study aimed to examine correlates of achieving recommended levels of physical activity among women of low socio-economic position. In 2005, a population-based sample of 291 women with low educational attainment provided survey data on leisure time physical activity (LTPA). Participants reported potential personal (enjoyment and self-efficacy; barriers; intentions; guilt and priorities; routines and scheduling; occupational physical activity; television viewing), social (support from family/friends; social participation; sport/recreation club membership; dog ownership) and environmental (aesthetics; safety; local access; footpaths; interesting walks; busy roads to cross; heavy traffic) correlates of physical activity. Nearly 40% of participants achieved recommended LTPA (150 min week(-1)). Multivariable analyses revealed that higher levels of self-efficacy for walking [prevalence ratio (PR) 2.05, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.19-3.53], higher enjoyment of walking (PR 1.48, 95% CI 1.04-2.12), greater intentions to be active (PR 1.97, 95% CI 1.12-3.45) and having set routines for physical activity (PR 1.91, 95% CI 1.18-3.09) were significantly associated with achieving recommended LTPA. Personal factors were the characteristics most strongly associated with achieving recommended levels of LTPA among women from socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds.     

Environmental and lifestyle factors associated with overweight and obesity in Perth,Australia

PURPOSE: To examine associations between environmental and lifestyle factors and overweight or obesity. DESIGN: A cross-sectional survey and an environmental scan of recreational facilities. SETTING: Metropolitan Perth, Western Australia. SUBJECTS: Healthy sedentary workers and homemakers aged 18 to 59 years (n = 1803) living in areas within the top and bottom quintiles of social disadvantage. MEASURES: Four lifestyle factors, one social environmental factor, and five physical environment factors (three objectively measured). RESULTS: After adjustment for demographic factors and other variables in the model, overweight was associated with living on a highway (odds ratio [OR], 4.24; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.62-11.09) or streets with no sidewalks or sidewalks on one side only (OR, 1.35; 95% CI, 1.03-1.78) and perceiving no paths within walking distance (OR, 1.42; 95% CI, 1.08-1.86). Poor access to four or more recreational facilities (OR, 1.68; 95% CI, 1.11-2.55) and sidewalks (OR, 1.62; 95% CI, .98-2.68) and perceiving no shop within walking distance (OR, 1.84; 95% CI, 1.01-3.36) were associated with obesity. Conversely, access to a motor vehicle all the time was negatively associated with obesity (OR, .56; 95% CI, .32-.99). Watching 3 or more hours of television daily (ORs, 1.92 and 1.85, respectively) and rating oneself as less active than others (ORs, 1.66 and 4.05, respectively) were associated with both overweight and obesity. After adjustment for individual demographic factors and all other variables in the model, socioeconomic status of area of residence and leisure-time physical activity were not associated with overweight or obesity. CONCLUSION: Factors that influence overweight and obesity appear to differ, but aspects of the physical environment may be important. Objectively measured neighborhood environment factors warrant further investigation.     

Neighborhood Road Environments and Physical Activity Among Youth: The CLAN Study

We examined associations between objective measures of the local road environment and physical activity (including active transport) among youth. There is little empirical evidence of the impact of the road environment on physical activity among children/adolescents in their neighborhoods. Most recent studies have examined perceptions rather than objective measures of the road environment. This was a cross-sectional study of children aged 8-9 years (n = 188) and adolescents aged 13-15 years (n = 346) who were participants in the 3-year follow-up of the Children Living in Active Neighborhoods (CLAN) longitudinal study in Melbourne, Australia. At baseline (2001), they were recruited from 19 state primary schools in areas of varying socioeconomic status across Melbourne. Habitual walking/cycling to local destinations was parent-reported for children and self-reported for adolescents, while moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) outside school hours was recorded using accelerometers. Road environment features in each participant's neighborhood (area of radius 800 m around the home) were measured objectively using a geographical information system. Regression analyses found no associations between road environment variables and children's likelihood of making at least seven walking/cycling trips per week to neighborhood destinations. Adolescent girls residing in neighborhoods with two to three traffic/pedestrian lights were more likely to make seven or more walking/cycling trips per week as those whose neighborhoods had fewer traffic lights (OR: 2.7; 95% CI: 1.2-6.2). For adolescent boys, residing on a cul-de-sac, compared with a through road, was associated with increases in MVPA of 9 min after school, 5 min in the evenings, and 22 min on weekend days. Speed humps were positively associated with adolescent boys' MVPA during evenings. The road environment influences physical activity among youth in different ways, according to age group, sex and type of physical activity.     

Physical aggression and social class]

OBJECTIVE: Considering the increase of violence and the scarcity of informations about the relation between social class and victimization by physical aggression, a study was conducted to investigate this association. METHODS: A hospital-based case-control study. Cases and controls were recruited at a hospital, first-aid clinic, from 1/10/93 to 19/1/95. The study included 191 cases and 222 controls selected from among patients with non-violent clinical-surgical complaints, frequency-matched to cases by sex and age. Using a standardized questionnaire applied by trained interviewers, information obtained included social class, skin color, marital status, smoking habits, alcohol consumption and illicit drug use. RESULTS: Adjusting for sex and age, the risk of victimization by physical aggression was significantly higher for the subproletariat, Odds Ratio (OR) 4.20, 95% Confidence Interval (95% CI) 1.99-8.84; single (OR = 2.10) or informal union (OR = 2.62) as marital status (reference group = married); smokers of more than 10 cigarettes/day (OR = 2.75); alcohol consumption (OR = 2.08 for < or = 240 grams/week and OR = 24.05 for > 240 grams/week); and illicit drug users (OR = 3.07). After adjusting for all factors studied a significant risk remained for the subproletariat (OR = 3.28, 95% CI 1.42-7.59); single as marital status (OR = 2.05, 95% CI 1.09-3.88); and alcohol consumption (OR = 2.01, 95% IC 1.07-3.77 for < or = 240 and OR = 15.93, 95% CI 5.09-49.8 for > 240 grams/week) CONCLUSION: Social class is an important factor in the phenomenon of victimization by physical aggression, with the subproletariat deserving special attention in the strategies of intervention regarding this problem.     

Walking trends among U.S. adults: the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 1987-2000

OBJECTIVE: To examine trends in walking among adults in 31 states. METHODS: Trends by sociodemographic strata were analyzed from respondents who participated in the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS). RESULTS: The prevalence of walking among men increased 3.8% (95% confidence interval [CI]=2.4-5.2), from 26.2% (95% CI=25.1-25.3) in 1987 to 30.1% (95% CI=29.4-30.8) in 2000. In women, walking increased 6.6% (95% CI=5.4-7.8), from 40.4% (95% CI=-39.4-41.1) to 46.9% (95% CI=46.2-47.6) during the same time period. However, the prevalence of walking three times a week for 30 minutes duration remained constant across all years. The largest increases occurred in minority subpopulations: 8.7% (95% CI=3.2-14.2) in Hispanic women, 8.5% (95% CI=4.4-12.6) non-Hispanic black women, and 7.0% (95% CI=2.3-11.7) in non-Hispanic black men. Walking was the most frequently reported activity among adults who met the national recommendations for regular physical activity (defined as five or more times a week for > or =30 minutes per session). CONCLUSIONS: Given the acceptability of walking across all sociodemographic subgroups, efforts to increase the frequency of walking could markedly increase the percentage of U.S. adults who engage in regular physical activity, a national priority identified in the Healthy People 2010 objectives for the nation.     

Associations among individual, social, and environmental barriers and children's walking or cycling to school

PURPOSE: To examine associations among individual, social, and environmental barriers and children's walking or cycling to school. DESIGN: Exploratory cross-sectional study. SETTING: All eight capital cities in Australia. SUBJECTS. Parents (N=720) of school-aged children (4-13 years; 27% response rate; 49% parents of boys). MEASURES: Multivariate-adjusted odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for parental reporting of barriers to their children's walking or cycling to school, based on a computer-assisted telephone interview. RESULTS: Forty-one percent of children walked or cycled to school at least once per week. Multivariable analyses found inverse associations with individual ("child prefers to be driven" [OR = 0.4, 95% CI = 0.3-0.6], "no time in the mornings" [OR = 0.5, 95% CI = 0.3-0.8]); social ("worry child will take risks" [OR = 0.6, 95% CI = 0.3-0.9], "no other children to walk with" [OR = 0.7, 95% CI = 0.4-0.99], "no adults to walk with" [OR = 0.6, 95% CI = 0.4-0.9]); and environmental barriers ("too far to walk" [OR = 0.1, 95% CI = 0.0-0.1], "no direct route" [OR = 0.4, 95% CI = 0.2-0.7]) and positive associations with "concern child may be injured in a road accident" (OR = 1.9, 95% CI = 1.1-3.1) and active commuting. CONCLUSION: Working with parents, schools, and local authorities to improve pedestrian skills and environments may help to overcome barriers.     

Perceived environment attributes, residential location, and walking for particular purposes

BACKGROUND: Identifying environmental factors that can influence physical activity is a public health priority. We examined associations of perceived environmental attributes with walking for four different purposes: general neighborhood walking, walking for exercise, walking for pleasure, and walking to get to and from places. METHODS: Participants (n =399; 57% women) were surveyed by mail. They reported place of residence, walking behaviors, and perceptions of neighborhood environmental attributes. RESULTS: Men with the most positive perceptions of neighborhood "aesthetics" were significantly more likely (odds ratio [OR]=7.4) to be in the highest category of neighborhood walking. Men who perceived the weather as not inhibiting their walking were much more likely (OR=4.7) to be high exercise walkers. Women who perceived the weather as not inhibiting their walking were significantly more likely to be high neighborhood walkers (OR=3.8) and those with moderate perceptions of "accessibility" were much more likely to do more walking for pleasure (OR=3.5). CONCLUSIONS: Different environmental attributes were associated with different types of walking and these differed between men and women. Approaches to increasing physical activity might usefully focus on those attributes of the local environment that might influence particular subsets of walking behavior.     

Associations of smoking prevalence with individual and area level social cohesion

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To discover if area level social cohesion, neighbourhood safety, and home safety are associated with current cigarette smoking among adults after adjustment for concentrations of poverty and low education. DESIGN: Cross sectional survey of a random sample of adults, stratified by 19 geographical areas. SETTING: SHAPE, Survey of the Health of Adults, the Population, and the Environment-conducted in 1998 by the Hennepin County Community Health Department and the Minneapolis Department of Health and Family Support in Minnesota. PARTICIPANTS: 5256 men and 4806 women, 18 years and older, randomly selected from 19 geographical areas in an urban county. MAIN RESULTS: Overall, 21.2% of survey respondents reported current cigarette smoking. Both higher area level social cohesion (OR = 0.85, 95% CI = 0.74 to 0.98) and higher individual social cohesion (OR = 0.96, 95% CI = 0.92 to 0.99) were associated with lower likelihoods of smoking. Similar models were obtained for neighbourhood safety and home safety. CONCLUSIONS: These findings contribute to the growing literature on the important role of social cohesion and other area level characteristics on smoking behaviour among adults.