气道正压通气治疗高血压伴阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征

目的经鼻持续气道正压通气(nCPAP)治疗高血压合并阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征(OS-AHS)患者,以评价该疗法对血压和睡眠呼吸监测参数的影响。方法临床确诊合并OSAHS的高血压患者,随机分为治疗组和对照组,治疗组在给予常规药物(抗高血压药、抗动脉硬化药物)治疗的同时进行nCPAP治疗,对照组仅给予常规药物治疗。30天后,观察两组治疗前后血压、睡眠呼吸监测参数变化。结果高血压合并OSAHS患者共60例,治疗组和对照组各30例;治疗后治疗组的收缩压(SBP)、舒张压(DBP)、脉压(PP)、心率(HR)、睡眠呼吸暂停低通气指数(AHI)、最长呼吸暂停时间和最低脉搏容积血氧饱和度(SpO2min),与对照组比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);部分患者降压药物减量或停用,仅用nCPAP治疗就能维持正常血压。结论nCPAP是非药物治疗合并OSAHS高血压患者的一种安全有效方法。     

气道正压通气治疗高血压伴阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征

目的 经鼻持续气道正压通气(nCPAP)治疗高血压合并阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征(OSAHS)患者,以评价该疗法对血压和睡眠呼吸监测参数的影响.方法 临床确诊合并OSAHS的高血压患者,随机分为治疗组和对照组,治疗组在给予常规药物(抗高血压药、抗动脉硬化药物)治疗的同时进行nCPAP治疗,对照组仅给予常规药物治疗.30天后,观察两组治疗前后血压、睡眠呼吸监测参数变化.结果 高血压合并OSAHS患者共60例,治疗组和对照组各30例;治疗后治疗组的收缩压(SBP)、舒张压(DBP)、脉压(PP)、心率(HR)、睡眠呼吸暂停低通气指数(AHI)、最长呼吸暂停时间和最低脉搏容积血氧饱和度(SpO2min),与对照组比较差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05);部分患者降压药物减量或停用,仅用nCPAP治疗就能维持正常血压.结论 nCPAP是非药物治疗合并OSAHS高血压患者的一种安全有效方法.     

阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征相关难治性高血压研究进展

<正>难治性高血压(RH)是一种特殊类型的高血压,常伴有严重的靶器官损伤。流行病学资料显示阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征(OSAHS)是RH的危险因素。但OSAHS引起RH的发病机制尚未阐明,推测可能与高醛固酮血症、交感神经活性增强、氧化应激、肥胖、胰岛素抵抗等有关。本文就OSAHS与RH的相关性、病理生理机制及持续正压通气(CPAP)治疗对血压的影响做一综述。1 RH的定义及病因     

手术治疗伴难治性高血压的阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征患者的疗效

目的探讨多平面联合手术治疗阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征(OSAHS)伴难治性高血压病人的疗效。方法对36例病人行多平面联合手术,术前及术后6个月、1年和2年行多道睡眠图监测(PSG)和动态血压监测,记录血压及呼吸暂停低通气指数(AHI)、SaO2<90%的时间占总睡眠时间的百分比和最低血氧饱和度(LSaO2)等,并比较手术前后服用降压药物种类的变化。结果患者夜间的AHI、SaO2<90%的时间均较手术前显著降低,LSaO2明显提高(P<0.01)。术后6个月、1年和2年所有病人的收缩压和舒张压与术前比较均明显下降(P<0.05,P<0.01),并且所有病人的收缩压和舒张压下降幅度均超过5 mmHg。术后6个月有31例病人、术后1年有33例病人、术后2年有32例病人血压恢复正常;并且平均服用药物种类下降,术前36例病人(3.62±0.62)种,术后6个月时(2.83±0.55)种,1年时(2.78±0.72)种,2年时(2.73±0.57)种,与术前相比差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论对OSAHS伴难治性高血压病人进行多平面联合手术可有效改善血压,减少降压药物的使用。     

上气道手术对阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征患者颈动脉血管弹性影响的研究

目的:观察上气道手术是否改善阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征(OSAHS)患者颈动脉血管壁弹性。方法:在手术前和术后半年收集137例行上气道手术OSAHS患者的凝血、血脂和部分患者颈动脉内中膜厚度(CIMT)和动脉血管回声(ET)数据,进行分析比较。结果:术后OSAHS患者颈动脉血管硬度、弹性系数减小,血清凝血酶原时间(PT)、凝血酶时间(TT)延长,纤维蛋白原(FIB)、脂蛋白(a)(LPa)减少。其它各项参数无显著变化。结论:上气道手术术后OSAHS患者颈动脉血管壁弹性等动脉硬化相关指标有所改善,可能对心血管系统有保护性作用。     

阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征与高血压

阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征(OSAHS)是普遍的睡眠呼吸失调,常与肥胖相伴随,发病呈增加趋势。近期研究表明,无论是否存在其它心血管病的危险因素,OSAHS都可促进高血压的发病,并增加其治疗的难度。本文就OSAHS在高血压发病中的作用机制与防治展望作一综述。     

伴阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征高血压患者的血压控制研究

目的探讨伴阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征(OSAHS)的高血压患者,同时服用降压药和接受持续气道正压通气(CPAP)是否能有效控制血压。方法选取2014年1月至2015年6月南京医科大学第一附属医院睡眠中心就诊的伴有OSAHS高血压患者180例,根据服用降压药物后血压是否被有效控制,分为控制组(n=87)和未控制组(n=93),两组在服用降压药同时接受CPAP 6个月,比较服用不同降压药方案和CPAP治疗前后血压是否得到有效控制的关系。结果所有患者共使用13种不同的降压药方案进行治疗。控制组与未控制组患者降压药方案差异无统计学意义(P0.05),多因素logistic回归分析表明降压药方案不是影响伴OSAHS高血压患者血压控制的独立预测因子(OR=1.897,P=0.094)。使用CPAP后控制组、非控制组夜间收缩压(SBP)和舒张压(DBP)均下降,差异有统计学意义(P0.01)。结论伴OSAHS高血压病患者的降压治疗方案与血压控制无明显相关性,而CPAP治疗可使降压药有效组和无效组患者的夜间血压都降低。     

阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征患者气道反应性的研究

目的探讨阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征(OSAHS)对气道反应性的影响。方法纳入来我院行多导睡眠图(PSG)检查的患者78例,按呼吸暂停低通气指数(AHI)分为正常对照组、轻中度OSAHS组、重度OSAHS组,均进行肺功能检查,并用乙酰甲胆碱行支气管激发试验,评估气道反应性并进行比较。结果78例入选对象中正常对照组12例,轻中底OSAHS组27例,重度OSAHS组39例,行支气管激发试验后证实轻中度OSAHS组哮喘患者5例。重度OSAHS组哮喘患者11例,非哮喘患者激发试验FEV1下降率组间比较有显著差异,由正常组、轻中度OSAHS组、重度OSAHS组依次增国,轻中度OSAHS组中的哮喘患者气道反应性要显著低于重度OSAHS组的患者,OSAHS患者中老年组哮喘发病率较低。结论OSAHS患者气道反应性增高,哮喘发病率增高。     

阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征患者高血压发生机制

阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征是一种常见的睡眠呼吸疾病,具有发病率高,并发症多,危害性大的特点。众多研究已表明睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征是高血压发病的独立危险因素,然而其确切机制并不十分清楚,可能是多种因素协同作用的结果。     

持续正压通气治疗阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征伴高血压的护理

目的研究持续气道正压通气(CPAP)治疗阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征(OSAHS)伴高血压的作用及护理。方法45例OSAHS伴高血压患者使用CPAP,每晚治疗8h。定时测量血压,并辅以积极的护理措施,观察患者治疗前后的血压变化。结果治疗后血压有所下降(P<0.05),下降时间为3～14d,平均(5±2.5)d。结论CPAP治疗OSAHS伴高血压是一种有效方法,护理有其特殊性和重要性。     

282例不同程度阻塞型睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合症合并高血压患者的临床资料回顾性分析

目的: 探讨不同程度阻塞型睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合症（obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome ,OSAHS）合并高血压患者对代谢、血管结构和功能及夜间睡眠各时期平均心率的影响。方法 收集2012-2016年在徐州市中心医院心血管内科住院筛查高血压病因的360例患者的临床资料,根据患者呼吸暂停低通气指数（apnea hypopnea index ,AHI）,分为单纯高血压组（AHI<5次/h）、高血压合并轻度OSAHS组（AHI5~<15次/h）、高血压合并中度OSAHS组（AHI16 ~<30次/h）、高血压合并重度OSAHS组（AHI>30次/h）4个组。整理4组患者年龄、腰围、血脂、空腹血糖、空腹胰岛素、超敏C反应蛋白、颈-股动脉脉搏波波速、颈动脉内中膜厚度、夜间多导睡眠监测(polysomnography, PSG)参数等临床资料。运用单因素方差分析及非参数检验上诉因素是否加重OSAHS程度及多重线性回归分析夜间睡眠各期心率与OSAHS的关系。结果 重度OSAHS合并高血压组年龄、身体质量指数、腰臀比、腰围身高比、甘油三酯、高密度脂蛋白胆固醇、低密度脂蛋白胆固醇、超敏C反应蛋白、胰岛素抵抗指数、颈—股动脉脉搏波波速、颈动脉内中膜厚度、AHI、平均血氧饱和度、最低血氧饱和度及全程、醒时、睡时、非眼球快速运动睡眠 (NREM) 期、浅睡期平均心率高于单纯高血压组;多重线性回归分析校正了混杂因素,夜间全程、醒时、睡时、NREM期、浅睡期平均心率都与AHI呈正相关（β=0.344, P=0.000;β=0.490,P=0.000;β=0.300,P=0.001;β=0.306,P=0.001;β=0.293,P=0.001）,与年龄呈负相关（β= -0.312, P=0.000;β= -0.345, P=0.000;β= -0.328,P=0.000;β=-0.331,P=0.000;β=-0.331,P=0.000;）结论 重度OSAHS加重高血压患者发生代谢紊乱及血管重构;全程、醒时、睡时、NREM期、浅睡期平均心率随着OSAHS病情加重而升高,随着年龄的增加而减慢。     

Diagnostic Approaches to Childhood Obstructive Sleep Apnea Hypopnea Syndrome

Obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS) is a common sleep disorder in adults that is increasingly recognized in children, affecting 1 to 3% of children. Children experience a spectrum of severity related to the degree of upper airway obstruction, the duration of the disease, and the presence or absence of hypoxemic episodes. Failure to diagnose and treat OSAHS can result in serious, but generally reversible consequences for the child including impaired growth, neurocognitive and behavioral dysfunction, and cardiorespiratory failure. Even mild OSAHS appears linked to reversible health consequences. Adenotonsillar hypertrophy is the major predisposing factor for OSAHS in childhood. However, enlarged tonsils and adenoids can be a normal finding in young children and are not diagnostic for OSAHS. The identification of children with OSAHS is often difficult because affected children may have no signs or symptoms when awake. Furthermore, clinical assessment cannot reliably distinguish between simple snoring and OSAHS. Adenotonsillectomy is the most common therapy for OSAHS in children, but surprisingly, only a small percentage of children undergo any diagnostic testing prior to surgery. Thus, the challenge is to develop new diagnostic strategies that effectively screen, identify, and treat children most likely to benefit from specific treatment.     

Supine-Dependent Changes in Upper Airway Size in Awake Obstructive Sleep Apnea Patients

The purpose of this study was to define the changes in upper airway size in response to a body position change from upright to supine. A total of 15 male Caucasian obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) patients with a mean apnea hypopnea index of 31.0 ± 13.9/hr were recruited for this study. A set of upright and supine cephalograms was traced and digitized for each patient. The most constricted site in the upright position was located in the velopharynx. When the body position was changed from upright to supine, a significant reduction in the anteroposterior dimension was observed only at the level of the velopharynx (p < 0.05). Sagittal cross-sectional areas of the velopharynx and the oropharynx significantly decreased (p < 0.05), but the soft palate area increased (p < 0.05). We conclude that the velopharynx is not only the narrowest site in both upright and supine body positions but also the most changeable site in response to an alteration in body position during wakefulness. Backward displacement of the soft palate with a change in shape may reflect less functional compensation in the velopharynx than that in the oropharynx and the hypopharynx and partly explain why upper airway occlusion occurs primarily in the velopharynx in OSA patients.     

高血压合并阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征患者短时血压变异性的影响因素研究

目的:探讨高血压合并阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征(OSAS)患者短时血压变异性(BPV)的影响因素。方法:选择2017年6月至2019年5月在宁波市第一医院心血管科诊治的153例高血压患者,给予多导睡眠呼吸监测及动态血压监测,根据睡眠呼吸暂停低通气指数(AHI)将患者分四组:单纯高血压作为对照组(41例)、高血压合并轻度OSAS组(36例)、高血压合并中度OSAS组(36例)、高血压合并重度OSAS组(40例)。采用因子分析方法提取影响高血压合并OSAS患者短时血压变异性的公因子,进行多元线性回归分析影响高血压合并OSAS患者短时血压变异性的因素。结果:因子分析纳入可能影响高血压合并OSAS患者短时血压变异性的因素,共提取4个公因子:体重指数、OSAS严重程度相关参数、生活行为习惯、年龄及高血压病程;多元线性回归分析显示OSAS严重程度与高血压合并OSAS患者夜间收缩压短时血压变异性(nSBPARV)及夜间舒张压短时血压变异性(nDBPARV)均存在相关性(β=0.277,P<0.05;β=0.360,P<0.05),对于高血压合并OSAS患者nSBPARV的影响因素依次为OSAS严重程度>年龄及高血压病程(分别为β=0.277,P<0.05;β=0.225,P<0.05),对于nDBPARV的影响因素依次为OSAS严重程度>体重指数(分别为β=0.360,P<0.05;β=0.187,P<0.05)。高血压合并轻度、中度、重度OSAS组的nSBPARV、nDBPARV均较对照组大;且高血压合并重度OSAS组的nSBPARV、nDBPARV、日间收缩压短时血压变异性均大于对照组、高血压合并轻度、中度OSAS组,差异均具有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论:高血压患者合并OSAS时容易出现夜间短时血压变异性增加,OSAS严重程度是高血压合并OSAS患者夜间血压短时变异性增加的主要因素,肥胖、年龄及高血压病程也是重要影响因素。     

阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征患者心血管疾病相关因子血清水平的变化分析

目的:探讨无心血管疾病的阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征(OSAHS)患者心血管疾病相关因子血清自细胞介素-18、白细胞介素-1β、白细胞介素-10、可溶性CD40配体(sCD40L)、胰岛素样生长因子-2(IGF-2)与OSAHS病情严重程度的相关性.方法:采用酶联免疫吸附法(ELISA)测定无心血管疾病及其并发症的56例OSAHS患者[OSAHS组,根据呼吸暂停低通气指数(AHI)和夜间最低氧饱和度(SaO2min)将OSAHS分为轻、中、重度者]、10例单纯鼾症患者(鼾症组)及30例单纯肥胖者(对照组)血清相关因子水平,采用方差分析、Sperman's相关分析等统计方法,比较各组之间的差异,分析各因子浓度与多导睡眠监测(PSG)参数的相关性.结果:白细胞介素-1β:OSAHS组及鼾症组、对照组之间差异无统计学意义(P>0.05).白细胞介素-18:OSAHS组重度者与对照组、鼾症组、轻度者和中度者比较明显升高(P<0.01);中度者与对照组、鼾症组比较明显升高,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05-0.01).白细胞介素-10:OSAHS组重度者与对照组、鼾症组、轻度者和中度者比较明显降低(P<0.01);中度者与对照组、鼾症组比较明显降低(P<0.01);轻度者与对照组、鼾症组比较明显降低(P<0.01).胰岛素样生长因子-2:OSAHS组重度者与对照组、鼾症组、轻度者和中度者比较明显升高(P<0.01);中度者与对照组、鼾症组、轻度者比较明显升高(P<0.01).可溶性CD40配体:OSAHS组重度者与对照组、鼾症组和轻度者比较明显升高,(P<0.05～0.01),中度者与对照组比较明显升高(P<0.01).白细胞介素-18的血清浓度与呼吸暂停低通气指数及最长呼吸暂停时间呈正相关(r=4.873,r=1.863,P均<0.0001);白细胞介素-10与白细胞介素-18相反,它与呼吸暂停低通气指数及最长呼吸暂停时间呈负相关(r=-0.906,r=-0.608,P均<0.0001);可溶性CD40配体也与OSAHS呈正相关(r=0.039,P=0.001);胰岛素样生长因子-2的浓度与呼吸暂停低通气指数呈正相关(r=0.261,P=0.016),与夜间最低氧饱和度呈负相关(r=-5.147,P<0.001).结论:无心血管疾病及其并发症的OSAHS患者血清中心血管疾病相关因子已经出现了与OSAHS病情严重程度相关的平衡失调,这种紊乱可能是OSAHS易发生心血管并发症的原因之一.     

The Relationship between Morning Hypertension and Sleep Quality in Patients with Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome

This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of abnormal diurnal blood pressure (BP) profiles in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) in relation to the data of a sleep study. Total 103 patients newly diagnosed with OSAS underwent overnight polysomnography and 24-hour ambulatory BP measurements. Patients without morning or nocturnal hypertension (control group), patients with morning hypertension but not nocturnal hypertension (surge-type group), and patients with both morning and nocturnal hypertension (sustained-type group) were compared. Morning hypertension was present in 54 patients (16 surge-type and 38 sustained-type). The apnea–hypopnea index and sleep efficiency were higher and lower, respectively, in the sustained-type group than in the other groups. Slow-wave sleep incidence was significantly lower in the sustained-type and surge-type groups than in the control group. These results suggest that approximately half the OSAS patients displayed morning hypertension, the sustained-type being more common than the surge-type. Poor sleep quality plays an important role in the pathogenesis of morning hypertension in both the sustained- and the surge-type group.     

Effect of Continuous Positive Airway Pressure Therapy on Aortic Stiffness in Patients with Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome

Objective: The most significant complications seen in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) are associated with the cardiovascular system. The present study assessed aortic stiffness in patients with OSAS and evaluated the effect of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) therapy on aortic stiffness. Method: Twenty‐four patients with newly diagnosed, previously untreated, moderate or severe OSAS (apnea‐hypopnea index > 15) and a control group of 17 healthy patients were included in the study. M‐mode recordings of the ascending aorta were taken from the parasternal long axis by echocardiograhy, and systolic and diastolic diameters of the aorta were measured. Aortic elastic parameters, aortic strain, and distensibility were calculated. Measurements were repeated after 6 months of CPAP therapy in patients with OSAS and were compared with baseline values. Results: In patients with OSAS, compared with the control group, aortic strain (6.7%± 2.1% vs. 12.4%± 3.1%; P < 0.001) and aortic distensibility (2.8 ± 0.9 × 10^?6 cm² dyn^?1 vs. 5.5 ± 1.7 × 10^?6 cm² dyn^?1; P < 0.001) were evidently lower, and there was a significant correlation between aortic elastic parameters and AHI. After a 6‐month course of CPAP therapy, significant increases were observed in aortic strain (6.1%± 1.5% vs. 7.3%± 1.7%; P < 0.001) and aortic distensibility (2.5 ± 0.7 × 10^?6 cm² dyn^?1 vs. 3.1 ± 0.9 × 10^?6 cm² dyn^?1; P < 0.001) in patients with OSAS. Conclusion: Aortic strain and distensibility were lower in patients with OSAS than in control patients, and CPAP treatment provided improvement in aortic elastic parameters. (ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY, Volume 26, November 2009)     

阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停低通气综合征对糖代谢的影响

OSAHS是以睡眠过程中反复发生上气道塌陷从而导致频繁的呼吸暂停或通气量减少为特征的一种睡眠呼吸障碍性疾病.OSAHS常合并各种代谢功能障碍,其中糖代谢紊乱与OSAHS的关系正受到广泛的关注.     

Quantification of Circulating Cell-Free DNA in the Serum of Patients with Obstructive Sleep Apnea–Hypopnea Syndrome

Serum cell-free DNA concentrations have been reported to increase in many acute diseases as well as in some chronic conditions such as cancer and autoimmune diseases. The aim of this study was to examine whether serum DNA concentrations were elevated in patients with obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS). The effects of nasal continuous positive airway pressure (nCPAP) on serum DNA were also investigated. One hundred twenty-seven people diagnosed with OSAHS by polysomnography (PSG) were admitted into the OSAHS group, and 52 subjects without OSAHS were recruited for the control group. The OSAHS group was further divided into mild, moderate, and severe OSAHS subgroups based on their apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) during sleep. Ten patients with moderate and severe OSAHS were treated with nCPAP. Serum DNA, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and malonaldehyde (MDA) concentrations were measured and were found to be significantly higher in patients with moderate and severe OSAHS groups than those in the mild OSAHS and control groups (p < 0.05). Univariate analysis showed that serum DNA correlated positively with AHI, oxygen desaturation index (ODI), IL-6, and MDA, and negatively correlated with minimal oxygen saturation (miniSaO₂) (all p < 0.05). In stepwise multiple regression analysis, only MDA and miniSaO₂ were suggested as significant independent predictors for the serum DNA concentrations. After 6 months of nCPAP therapy, serum concentrations of DNA, IL-6, and MDA were significantly decreased (p < 0.05). The increasing concentration of serum DNA in patients with OSAHS was positively correlated with disease severity. Serum DNA may become an important parameter for monitoring the severity of OSAHS and effectiveness of therapy.     

Oropharyngeal Dysphagia in Patients with Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome

Although previous studies demonstrated that patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) may present subclinical manifestations of dysphagia, in not one were different textures and volumes systematically studied. The aim of this study was to analyze the signs and symptoms of oropharyngeal dysphagia using fiberoptic endoscopic evaluation of swallowing (FEES) with boluses of different textures and volumes in a large cohort of patients with OSAS. A total of 72 OSAS patients without symptoms of dysphagia were enrolled. The cohort was divided in two groups: 30 patients with moderate OSAS and 42 patients with severe OSAS. Each patient underwent a FEES examination using 5, 10 and 20 ml of liquids and semisolids, and solids. Spillage, penetration, aspiration, retention, and piecemeal deglutition were considered. The penetration–aspiration scale (PAS), pooling score (PS), and dysphagia outcome and severity scale (DOSS) were used for quantitative analysis. Each patient completed the SWAL-QOL questionnaire. Forty-six patients (64 %) presented spillage, 20 (28 %) piecemeal deglutition, 26 (36 %) penetration, and 30 (44 %) retention. No differences were found in the PAS, PS, and DOSS scores between patients with moderate and severe OSAS. Patients with severe OSAS scored higher General Burden and Food selection subscales of the SWAL-QOL. Depending on the DOSS score, the cohort of patients was divided into those with and those without signs of dysphagia. Patients with signs of dysphagia scored lower in the General Burden and Symptoms subscales of the SWAL-QOL. OSAS patients show signs of swallowing impairment in about half of the population; clinicians involved in the management of these patients should include questions on swallowing when taking the medical history.