Routine lumbar punctures in the newborn — are they justified?

The records of 62,107 neonates cared for at three neonatal referral units between 1979 and 1985 were analysed with regard to the number of lumbar punctures (LP) performed and the results obtained. The mean perinatal mortality rate was 9.3/1000 live births and the neonatal mortality rate was 5.9/1000. The units were comparible in this respect. Two hundred and sixty three (0.4%) babies weighed less than 1.0 kg at birth and 510 (0.8%) babies weighed 1.0–1.5 kg. A total of 1554 LPs were performed on 1084 babies, 1.7% of the whole population. Seventeen babies were diagnosed as having meningitis following CSF examination; 5 weighed less than 1.5 kg (VLBW) (incidence of meningitis 6.5/100 births) and 12 weighed more than 1.5 kg (incidence 0.2/1000 live births). An LP was performed on 44% of VLBW babies and 1.2% of babies weighing more than 1.5 kg. In both groups approximately 1.5% of CSF samples were positive. Eight of the 17 positive results were obtained during the first 3 postnatal days. Only one VLBW baby had meningitis on the 1st day of life (1.3/1000). In view of the low incidence of meningitis and the risk factors associated with an LP it is questionable whether this procedure should be a routine investigation in the VLBW newborn.     

Controversies in the management of bacterial meningitis

Bacterial meningitis is an important infection of childhood with significant morbidity and mortality, and clinicians are faced with controversies over steroid use and fluid restriction in its initial management because the standard of practice is not clear. A 1999 survey of paediatric infectious diseases specialists demonstrated that only 56% of respondents recommended dexamethasone for Haemophilus influenzae type b meningitis and only 34% recommended dexamethasone for Streptococcus pneumoniae meningitis, despite recommendations for dexamethasone in the 1997 Red Book. The present article illustrates a typical case presentation of bacterial meningitis, and discusses dexamethasone use and fluid restriction. The use of intravenous fluid therapy is also reviewed, based on results from the single prospective randomized clinical trial in this area.     

血降钙素原在儿童化脓性脑膜炎与病毒性脑膜炎中的变化

目的：化脓性脑膜炎病原学检出率较低,尤其脑脊液改变不典型时给临床诊断带来困难。已证实血降钙素原(PCT)测定对鉴别细菌与病毒感染有重要价值,但在化脓性脑膜炎与病毒性脑膜炎的鉴别诊断方面与CRP、血沉比较孰优孰劣未见报道,另外诊断化脓性脑膜炎时PCT临界值的确定也未见报道。该文通过血PCT测定并与CRP、血沉比较探讨其对儿童化脓性脑膜炎与病毒性脑膜炎的鉴别诊断意义。方法：用免疫荧光法测定了41例急性脑膜炎患儿血PCT(其中化脓性脑膜炎18例,病毒性脑膜炎23例),同时测定血CRP、血沉。结果：化脓性脑膜炎组PCT,CRP及血沉分别为51.73±30.75μg/L,182.36±54.5mg/L和50.44±8.95mm/h;明显高于病毒性脑膜炎组0.84±0.99μg/L,8.90±10.66mg/L和16.75±13.23mm/h(P<0.01),受试者工作特征曲线下面积PCT为0.984(95%可信区间0.953～1.013),而CRP为0.983(95%可信区间0.954～1.012),二者比较差异无显著性(P>0.05)。有2例病毒性脑膜炎PCT值高于0.5μg/L,而化脓性脑膜炎病人均高于此值。结论：血PCT同CRP在儿童化脓性脑膜炎与病毒性脑膜炎的鉴别诊断方面有重要参考价值,优于血沉。     

Auditory profile in children recovering from bacterial meningitis

In the present study BERA profile of 30 post-meningitic children was compared with 15 normal children of the same age and it was observed that 36.6% children in the age range of 6 months to 36 months were found to have varying degree of sensorineural deafness. Severe bilateral sensorineural hearing loss (>80 dB) was observed in 6.6% children and moderate (40–80 dB) hearing loss in 30% of children. Abnormalities were bilateral in both the samples of children with severe hearing loss (>80 dB) whereas among 9 children who had moderate hearing loss abnormalities were bilateral in one patient and unilateral in the remaining 8 children. A relationship between higher incidence of sensorineural deafness and younger age of children, and occurence of seizures during meningitis were noted. But no relationship was observed with either sex, hydrocephalus, subdural effusion or with low CSF sugar and high CSF proteins.     

细菌性脑膜炎患儿脑脊液一氧化氮变化的研究

目的观察细菌性脑膜炎患儿脑脊液一氧化氮(NO)的变化及地塞米松对其的影响.方法应用Griess法和氨基酸自动分析仪检测23例细菌性脑膜炎患儿脑脊液中NO代谢终产物--亚硝酸盐和NO前体--L-精氨酸的浓度,并将31例无神经系统疾病患儿的脑脊液作为对照组.结果(1)治疗前,细菌性脑膜炎患儿脑脊液亚硝酸盐浓度[(10.76±4.09)μnol/L]明显高于对照组[(2.69±1.20)μnol/L],差异有显著性(t1=10.41,P＜0.01);经治疗后,脑脊液亚硝酸盐浓度渐下降.脑脊液指标恢复正常后,亚硝酸盐浓度[(3.00±1.16)μmol/L]与对照组差异无显著性(t=1.24,P＞0.05).(2)23例细菌性脑膜炎患儿中,14例单用抗生素治疗,其余9例在抗生素治疗的基础上,加用地塞米松治疗.抗生素+地塞米松治疗组脑脊液亚硝酸盐浓度[(5.92±1.90)μnol/L]显著低于单用抗生素组[(8.86±3.50)μnol/L],差异有显著性(t=2.30,P＜0.05).(3)细菌性脑膜炎患儿治疗前脑脊液L-精氨酸浓度[(12±6)μmol/L]显著低于对照组[(17±8)μnol/L],差异有显著性(t＝2.29,P＜0.05).结论NO参与了细菌性脑膜炎的病理过程,而地塞米松能部分抑制NO的过度产生.     

Sonographic findings in bacterial meningitis in neonates and young infants

Cranial sonography plays an important role in the initial evaluation of infants with suspected bacterial meningitis and in monitoring for complications of the disease. Echogenic widening of the brain sulci, meningeal thickening and hyperemia suggest the diagnosis in an at-risk population. Sonography can identify the presence of extra-axial fluid collections, and color Doppler sonography can be very helpful in differentiating benign enlargement of subarachnoid spaces from subdural effusions. Intraventricular debris and stranding, and an irregular and echogenic ependyma are highly suggestive findings associated with ventriculitis. Sonography can play an important role in the detection of postinfectious hydrocephalus, in the determination of the level of obstruction, and in the evaluation of intracranial compliance. Focal or diffuse parenchymal involvement can represent parenchymal involvement by cerebritis, infarction, secondary hemorrhage or early abscess.     

Validating and updating a prediction rule for serious bacterial infection in patients with fever without source

AIM: To externally validate and update a previously developed rule for predicting the presence of serious bacterial infections in children with fever without apparent source. METHODS: Patients, 1-36 mo, presenting with fever without source, were prospectively enrolled. Serious bacterial infection included bacterial meningitis, sepsis, bacteraemia, pneumonia, urinary tract infection, bacterial gastroenteritis, osteomyelitis/ethmoiditis. The generalizability of the original rule was determined. Subsequently, the prediction rule was updated using all available data of the patients with fever without source (1996-1998 and 2000-2001, n = 381) using multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: the generalizability of the rule appeared insufficient in the new patients (n = 150). In the updated rule, independent predictors from history and examination were duration of fever, vomiting, ill clinical appearance, chest-wall retractions and poor peripheral circulation (ROC area (95%CI): 0.69 (0.63-0.75)). Additional independent predictors from laboratory were serum white blood cell count and C-reactive protein, and in urinalysis > or = 70 white bloods (ROC area (95%CI): 0.83 (0.78-0.88). CONCLUSIONS: A previously developed prediction rule for predicting the presence of serious bacterial infection in children with fever without apparent source was updated. Its clinical score can be used as a first screening tool. Additional laboratory testing may specify the individual risk estimate (range: 4-54%) further.     

儿童细菌性脑膜炎致病菌分布和耐药性及临床特点10年变迁

目的 分析比较儿童细菌性脑膜炎(BM)近10年间在病原菌分布、耐药情况及其临床特点的变化,为临床诊治提供指导.方法 回顾分析10年中我院126例14岁以下BM患儿的临床资料,并将1998年1月至2002年12月的64例设为1组,2003年1月至2007年12月的62例设为2组,比较两组临床特点、病原菌分布及其耐药情况的变迁.结果 2组最常见的致病菌为凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌(17/62,27.4%)和大肠埃希菌(9/62,14.5%),而在1组二者所占比例分别为12/64(18.8%)和5/64(7.8%).耐苯唑西林的凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌2组13/19(68.4%)高于1组2/12(16.7%)(P<0.05).126例中出现抽搐42例,2组11/62(17.7%)低于1组31/64(48.4%,P<0.01);意识障碍16例,2组4/62(6.4%)低于1组12/64(18.8%)(P<0.05);出现并发症37例,2组13/62(21.0%)低于1组24/64(37.5%)(P<0.05);遗留神经系统后遗症34例,2组11/62(17.7%)低于1组23/64(35.9%)(P<0.05);但更改经验治疗2组21例(21/62,33.9%)高于1组7例(7/64,10.9%)(P<0.01).结论 (1)儿童BM病原菌凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌、大肠埃希菌等条件致病菌构成增加.(2)病原菌耐药菌株明显增多,给临床治疗带来困难,应及时调整治疗方案.(3)儿童BM临床重症表现减少,出现并发症、后遗症的比率降低,但治疗不顺利情况增多.     

Immunologic defense in bacterial and viral meningitis in children

The investigation of a number of parameters of nonspecific and specific defense in 13 purulent and 18 mumps meningitides gave no indication of underlying primary immunodeficiencies. Only in the acute phase of mumps meningitis did we find a temporary suppression of cellular immune reactions measured as diminished rate of incorporation of thymidine by phytohemagglutinin-stimulated peripheral blood lymphocytes.In commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the Childrens Hospital of the Jagiellonian University of Cracov/Poland and in memoriam of its formerly director, Professor Dr. X. Lewkowicz, an outstanding researchworker in the field of meningitis.     

Interleukin-8 levels in children with bacterial,tuberculous and aseptic meningitis

Objective : Interleukin-8 (IL-8) is produced in monocytes and vascular endothelial cells in response to stimulation with bacteria or lipopolysaccharides, and is released from these cells into blood stream or tissue fluid.Methods Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of interleukin-8 in 56 children with nonbacterial, bacterial and tuberculous meningitis (TBM), and in 15 control subjects were analyzed to evaluate the involvement of this cytokine in the pathogenesis acute bacterial meningitis and their discriminative value between different etiologies of meningitis. The kinetics of IL-8 concentrations during the course of bacterial meningitis was also evaluated in patients. IL-8 levels were significantly higher in bacterial and TBM than in aseptic meningitis and in control subjects (p<0.0001).Results: There was no difference in the levels of IL-8 between the non-bacterial meningitis and control groups. The analysis of the kinetics of production of IL-8 in patients with bacterial meningitis showed that the SSF concentrations of this cytokine decreased to undetectable values in recovery stage. Conversely in patients with TBM the concentrations of IL-8 were elevated in two weeks after beginning the specific treatment.Conclusion : The results suggest that determining IL-8 levels may be useful in the differential diagnosis.     

病原菌明确的细菌性脑膜炎146例临床及病原学分析

目的 分析细菌性脑膜炎患儿临床表现和病原特点,为临床诊治提供帮助。方法 收集复旦大学附属儿科医院2001年1月至2012年12月病原菌诊断明确的细菌性脑膜炎住院患儿,采集临床表现、辅助检查、并发症、病原菌种类和耐药情况等资料,分为0~28 d（新生儿组）,~1岁、~3岁和>3岁组进行描述分析。结果 146例细菌性脑膜炎患儿进入分析,新生儿组58例,~1岁组36例,~3岁组20例,>3岁组32例。①新生儿组发热、呕吐和脑膜刺激征的发生率较低,>3岁组伴有颅面、脊柱解剖畸形50%（16/32）。②革兰阳性菌占54.8%（80株）,以凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌（33株）、肠球菌（19株）和肺炎链球菌（12株）为主;革兰阴性菌占45.2%（66株）,以大肠埃希菌（30株）和鲍氏不动杆菌（10株）为主。③革兰阳性菌对万古霉素和利奈唑胺均敏感,革兰阴性菌除3/10株鲍氏不动杆菌和1/3株铜绿假单胞菌对美罗培南耐药外,余均敏感;大肠埃希菌、克雷伯菌和阴沟肠杆菌产超广谱β内酰胺酶阳性率分别达到66.7%、60.0%和100%。④63例（43.2%）出现急性期并发症,以硬膜下积液（26例）、脑积水（20例）和局部神经损害（13例）最常见;出现并发症主要病原菌为大肠埃希菌(15/30)、凝固酶阴性葡萄球菌（14/33）、肺炎链球菌（6/12）和鲍氏不动杆菌(6/10)。⑤出院结局：死亡或放弃治疗31例（21.2%）,其中肺炎链球菌性脑膜炎为5/12例（41.7%）。结论 细菌性脑膜炎新生儿临床表现多不典型,>3岁患儿应关注神经系统相关解剖结构缺陷的可能。可根据病原菌分布特点和药敏结果选用敏感抗生素。肺炎链球菌性脑膜炎患儿预后可能不良。     

Prediction of academic and behavioural limitations in school-age survivors of bacterial meningitis

AIM: To develop a prediction rule to identify postmeningitic children at high risk of academic and behavioural limitations. METHODS: 182 children (mean age 10 y; range 5-14) were selected from a cohort of 674 school-age survivors of bacterial meningitis. These children had neither meningitis with "complex onset", nor prior cognitive or behavioural problems, nor severe disease sequelae. On average, 7 y after the meningitis, they were evaluated using an "Academic Achievement Test", and their parents filled in the "Child Behaviour Checklist". By reviewing the medical records, potential risk factors for academic and/or behavioural limitations were collected. Independent predictors were identified using multivariate logistic regression analysis, leading to the formulation of a prediction rule. RESULTS: The cumulative incidence of academic and/or behavioural limitations among children who survived bacterial meningitis without severe disease sequelae was 32%. The prediction rule was based on nine independent risk factors: gender, birthweight, educational level of the father, S. pneumoniae, cerebrospinal fluid leukocyte count, delay between admission and start of antibiotics, dexamethasone use, seizures treated with anticonvulsive therapy, and prolonged fever. When 10 was taken as a cut-off point for the risk score computed using this rule, 76% of the children with limitations could be identified, while 38% of the children in the cohort were selected as at risk for these limitations. CONCLUSION: With a prediction rule based on nine risk factors, postmeningitic children at high risk of developing academic and/or behavioural limitations could be identified. Additional research is required to further validate this prediction rule. In the future, a careful follow-up of high risk children may enhance early detection and treatment of these limitations.     

Uncommon clinical presentation of a common bug: Group A Streptococcus meningitis

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a common pathogen in paediatric infections. However, it is a rare etiologic agent of bacterial meningitis. We describe a case of Streptococcus pyogenes meningitis complicated by sensorineural hearing loss in an immunocompetent 7-year-old boy. Clinicians should be aware of GAS as a potential cause of paediatric meningitis, especially with prominent symptoms suggestive of frontal sinusitis. Meningitis caused by GAS has been shown to be associated with significant mortality and morbidity, including neurological complications. Early screening for sensorineural hearing loss in patients with GAS meningitis can facilitate timely cochlear implant.     

Childhood bacterial meningitis: initial symptoms and signs related to age,and reasons for consulting a physician

The relationship of symptoms and signs to age and the reasons for consulting a physician were analyzed in 110 cases of culture-proven childhood bacterial meningitis. H. influenzae caused 74, meningococci 28, pneumococci 6 and streptococci 2 of the cases. Apart from fever (present in 94%), the most common symptoms according to age were as follows: 1–5 months: irritability (85%), 6–11 months: impaired consciousness (79%), 12 months or more: vomiting (82%) and neck rigidity (78%). Absence of neck rigidity at diagnosis was associated with young age (<12 months, P<0.001) and, in older children, to a short duration of symptoms (P<0.01) but not to the degree of CSF pleocytosis. Symptoms of meningitis caused by H. influenzae differed from those of meningococcal meningitis. Meningitis should be suspected in irritable or lethargic febrile children despite absence of neck rigidity. Fever and vomiting were the most frequent reasons for consulting a physician (60% and 31%, respectively). Despite the frequency and alarming character of irritability, impaired consciousness and neck rigidity, their presence led infrequently to a consultation (6%, 22% and 3%, respectively). Parental ignorance of such symptoms or of their importance may cause treatment delay, despite readily available medical services.Abbreviation CSF cerebrospinal fluid     

Lumbar punctures in suspected bacterial meningitis: Too many or too few?

Children aged 1 month to 14 years admitted to the Royal Alexandra Hospital for Children during a 10 month period with suspected meningitis were studied prospectively. The aims were to determine how often lumbar puncture (LP) was delayed or never done, in relation to the outcome of all children, in order to determine the risks of LP and the risks of not doing LP. Of 218 children with suspected meningitis, LP was performed immediately in 195 (89.4%). Meningitis was diagnosed in 49 of these (bacterial 18, viral 31). No child developed cerebral herniation due to immediate LP. There were 11 traumatic taps and two children required repeated attempts. Lumbar puncture was delayed, but performed at a later time in 17 children, of whom three had proven bacterial meningitis, 1 had presumed bacterial meningitis but no organism was detected and 13 had alternative diagnoses. Six children never had an LP, although ventricular cerebrospinal fluid was obtained from two Four of these six children had presumptive bacterial meningitis, one had tuberculous meningitis presenting with acute hydrocephaius and diagnosed post-mortem, and one had a very poor neurological outcome and no final diagnosis was reached. Of the 27 children with bacterial meningitis, LP was performed immediately in 18, or two-thirds. There were only minor adverse effects of immediate LP. Delayed LP probably resulted in failure to identify the organism in one child with bacterial meningitis, but did not adversely affect outcome in any child. Of the six children in whom LP was never performed, in only one was no final diagnosis reached. There was no evidence of excessive morbidity attributable to performing too many or too few lumbar punctures.     

Ketamine anesthesia with or without diazepam premedication for bone marrow punctures in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Ketamine is a drug widely used for analgesia and sedation of children for diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. The authors investigated in a randomized controlled clinical trial if diazepam premedication would have a beneficial effect on side effects related to ketamine anesthesia for bone marrow punctures (BMPs) in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Sixteen children 4 years or older at the time of BMP were eligible. The first 2 BMPs after complete remission was obtained were studied. BMPs were performed under ketamine anesthesia (1.0-1.5 mg/kg iv), as usual. Patients were randomized to receive 1 h before the first BMP blinded, either diazepam or placebo orally and before the second BMP the other way round. Blood pressure, heart rate, and oxygen saturation were monitored, and patients were observed for signs of anxiety, pain, and other side effects. The patients were interviewed after each BMP and asked for their preference 1 week after the second BMP. Ketamine anesthesia appeared as safe and effective after diazepam premedication as after placebo premedication. From the interviews and questionnaires, it was clear that half of the children preferred diazepam premedication because of less awful dreaming and more gradual falling asleep and waking up. Diazepam premedication may be useful for selected children with ALL receiving ketamine anesthesia for BMPs.     

Evidence for fluid volume depletion in hyponatraemic patients with bacterial meningitis

Since the mechanisms underlying hyponatraemia in meningitis are poorly understood, we retrospectively reviewed the records of 187 paediatric patients with bacterial meningitis treated at the Department of Pediatrics, University of Bern, Switzerland, between 1982 and 1994. The degree of dehydration calculated from naked weight on admission and at 5 days was consistently (by 2.8 × 10^?2) and significantly more pronounced in 30 hyponatraemic (plasma sodium 130 mmoll^?1 or less) than in 157 normonatraemic patients (plasma sodium 131 mmoll^?1 or more). Furthermore, a tendency towards reduced sodium excretion was noted in hyponatraemic patients. The results suggest that in bacterial meningitis hyponatraemia is mostly induced by clinically latent fluid volume depletion.