Birthweight and socioeconomic status: a study in Kigali, Rwanda

Data were collected on 6709 singleton livebirths occurring in the hospital of Kigali, Rwanda. An analysis of birthweights was carried out by socioeconomic status, parity and age of the mother. The mean birthweight was highest in the high socioeconomic group. An effect of maternal age and parity on birthweight was observed. Because of the strong association between socioeconomic status and birthweight, the incidence of low birthweight can be used as an indicator of socioeconomic development.     

The health centre as a location for care management

This paper examines the case for locating care management in health centres. Two related arguments are advanced. It is argued, firstly, that the close association between the health and social needs of dependent groups makes a multidisciplinary approach to community care essential. Secondly, it is suggested that the coordination of health and social care provision and the achievement of a seamless service would be achieved most readily in a setting which combined all of the main health and social care providers in one location. Other advantages include the potential contribution of general practitioners as case finders under the terms of the new GP contract and the fact that the introduction of care management to health centres would facilitate the mounting of experiments with different models of care management, particularly those involving a multiple worker approach.     

Cost analysis of a primary health care centre in Bangladesh

This report describes the first-ever cost analysis of a primary health care centre in Bangladesh. The aim was to provide information on costs incurred on various health care activities available in a thana health complex, in relation to the number of patients and the intensity of use of services.     

Designing the primary health care centre of the future: a community experience

PURPOSE: The purpose of this paper is to describe and assess the process undertaken by Capital Health responsible for planning and developing a new primary care centre in an older urban, and demographically mixed neighbourhood in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH: The approach to the paper is to describe how health centres, if they are to be fully effective in terms of meeting community needs, need more than technical excellence; they also need to fit into the community where they are to be located. Primary care centres, through helping people stay healthy and manage their own health in their own communities, can be an essential antidote to the challenges presented by an aging population. The paper uses the Capital Health initiative as a means of demonstrating how a primary care centre can achieve this objective, in terms of design and physical location, as well as planning process. FINDINGS: The paper describes the process the project planners have developed to enter into dialogue with representatives of the community. The proposed site selected for the clinic was met with some resistance because it was formerly a school built in the 1930s in the middle of a large area of green space and surrounded by mature elms in the midst of a mixed urban residential area. Through an intense two-way communication process with residents of the area, the plans for the centre are iterative, evolving in such a way that the clinic will not only integrate architecturally and structurally, but better meet the needs of the community it serves. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: The paper has practical implications for anyone interested in designing and locating new health centres in already existing urban communities. ORIGINALITY/VALUE: Discusses the issues of building a new primary care centre, while preserving precious green space and considering opinions of local residents.     

Joining and leaving sex work: experiences of women in Kigali,Rwanda

Although sex work can bring significant economic benefit there are serious downsides, not least vulnerability to adverse sexual health outcomes. Focus-groups discussions and in-depth interviews were conducted with 70 female sex workers to explore the context in which they started sex work, their motivations to leave, and their experiences of trying to leave. The pathway to becoming a sex worker was underscored by poverty, with disruptive events leading to increasing vulnerability and increasingly difficult life choices. A sizeable minority of women became sex workers while working as house-girls, a position associated with financial, physical and sexual vulnerability. The majority of participants were still working as sex workers, citing financial reasons for not leaving. Motivations to leave sex work included experiencing a frightening incident, peer pressure and concerns about dependent children. Those who left often described a change in their financial circumstances that enabled them to leave. Some had left but had returned to sex work following a financial crisis or because they found their new life too hard. House-girls are particularly vulnerable and therefore an appropriate focus for prevention. Programmes assisting women to leave need to include financial safety nets so that a time of financial difficulty does not necessitate a return to sex work.     

Weight loss after the first year of stavudine-containing antiretroviral therapy and its association with lipoatrophy, virological failure, adherence and CD4 counts at primary health care level in Kigali, Rwanda

This study was conducted among 609 adults on stavudine-based antiretroviral treatment (ART) for at least one year at health center level in Kigali, Rwanda to (a) determine the proportion who manifest weight loss after one year of ART (b) examine the association between such weight loss and a number of variables, namely: lipoatrophy, virological failure, adherence and on-treatment CD4 count and (c) assess the validity and predictive values of weight loss to identify patients with lipoatrophy. Weight loss after the first year of ART was seen in 62% of all patients (median weight loss 3.1 kg/year). In multivariate analysis, weight loss was significantly associated with treatment-limiting lipoatrophy (adjusted effect/kg/year -2.0 kg, 95% confidence interval -0.6;-3.4 kg; P<0.01). No significant association was found with virological failure or adherence. Higher on-treatment CD4 cell counts were protective against weight loss. Weight loss that was persistent, progressive and/or chronic was predictive of lipoatrophy, with a sensitivity and specificity of 72% and 77%, and positive and negative predictive values of 30% and 95%. In low-income countries, measuring weight is a routine clinical procedure that could be used to filter out individuals with lipoatrophy on stavudine-based ART, after alternative causes of weight loss have been ruled out.     

A cost-effectiveness evaluation of primary health care projects for the poor.

A cost-effectiveness analysis was conducted to determine the relative efficacy of nine primary health care projects serving low income persons in urban and rural areas of Texas. The projects were created as part of a government program to provide services in medically underserved areas of the state by contracting with local public and private providers. While they vary widely in terms of sponsoring organizations, service strategy, and scope of services, the projects share a similar goal of providing an array of basic medical and preventive care services to the poor. This study compares the average cost per encounter for diagnosis/treatment, emergency, family planning, and preventive health screening services provided by the various projects during the first year of operation. After adjusting for differences in input prices and patient volume, the cost differences are examined and related to organizational model and personnel mix. Those projects with the highest ratio of nonphysician to physician practitioners proved more cost-effective, as did those projects following the public clinic model of service delivery.     

Chronic leg ulcers: an underestimated problem in primary health care among elderly patients.

STUDY OBJECTIVE--The aim was to establish leg ulcer point prevalence, basal patient characteristics, and level of caretaking. DESIGN--The study was a postal cross sectional survey. The validity was ensured by examining a randomly selected sample of reported patients. Responding health care officials were asked to report all patients with an open wound below knee (including foot ulcer) which did not heal or was supposed to heal within a six week period after onset of ulceration. Response rate was 92%. SETTING--Inpatient and outpatient care in hospitals, community health care, and private nursing homes within Skaraborg county, with a population of 270,800. PARTICIPANTS--827 individual patients were found with active leg ulcers, 526 women and 301 men. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS--Age adjusted sex ratio of ulcer patients was 1:1.4 (M:F). The median age was 78 years for women and 76 for men; 700 patients (85%) were older than 64 years. The point prevalence for active leg ulcers was 3.0/1000 total population. District nurses provided care for 680 patients (82%), 106 (13%) were in hospital care, and 41 (5%) were managed by outpatient departments. CONCLUSIONS--There has been an underestimation of the leg ulcer problem among elderly patients, especially men. With an expected increasing number of elderly people it is important that this problem is recognised and measures taken to improve the primary care of these patients.     

Process evaluation in a Colombian primary health care programme

In a comprehensive primary health care (PHC) project, evaluationwas carried out for decision-making purposes during a five-yearperiod. All information gathered by different methods was afterwardsanalysed and ordered, using a systems approach: the system ofthe project, with its inputs, process, output and outcome wasdefined and data arranged and analysed accordingly. Criteriafor the analysis were reliability and validity, relevance, costsof obtaining the data, and use of the data. For decision-makingpurposes the information on the process - the interaction betweenproject activities and the community - with all its differentcomponents was the most relevant. It was obtained by the useof adapted World Health Organization (WHO) protocols, by externalevaluations, and from participatory evaluation. Output data(mainly on coverage) were quite easily obtained, but only whencombined with information on the process could it be known whethersuch data gave an indication of effective coverage. Methodsused for process evaluation are described and it is suggestedthat process evaluation should always be built into PHC projectsand programmes. WHO protocols, adapted to local situations,and used in a participatory manner, are good instruments forevaluation of the processes at service and community level.     

The impact of reducing financial barriers on utilisation of a primary health care facility in Rwanda

Abstract

This study investigates the impact of subsidising community-based health insurance (mutuelle) enrolment, removing point-of-service co-payments, and improving service delivery on health facility utilisation rates in Mayange, a sector of rural Rwanda of approximately 25,000 people divided among five ‘imidugudu’ or small villages. While comprehensive service upgrades were introduced in the Mayange Health Centre between April 2006 and February 2007, utilisation rates remained similar to comparison sites. Between February 2007 and April 2007, subsidies for mutuelle enrolment established virtually 100% coverage. Immediately after co-payments were eliminated in February 2007, patient visits levelled at a rate triple the previous value. Regression analyses using data from Mayange and two comparison sites indicate that removing financial barriers resulted in about 0.6 additional annual visits for curative care per capita.

Although based on a single local pilot, these findings suggest that in order to achieve improved health outcomes, key short-term objectives include improved service delivery and reduced financial barriers. Based on this pilot, higher utilisation rates may be affected if broader swaths of the population are enrolled in mutuelle and co-payments are eliminated. Health leaders in Rwanda should consider further studies to determine if the impact of eliminating co-payments and increasing subsidies for mutuelle enrolment as seen in Mayange holds at greater levels of scale. Broader studies to better elucidate the impact of enrolment subsidies and co-payment subsidies on utilisation, health outcomes, and costs would also provide policy insights.     

Epidemiology training: a necessity for primary health care.

In spite of planned development and expansion of health services, especially in rural areas in India, mortality due to preventable conditions has remained unacceptably high. Important reasons for failure of the health system to detect the problems early are centrally planned programmes based on inadequate data and time-bound numerical targets for achievement. This promotes a tendency for passive implementation which destroys initiative and incentive for conceptualisation of problems and strategies. For health programmes to be far more successful, the entire health team needs to be given training in epidemiology appropriate to the level of each category, so that programme planning based on epidemiologically determined local needs can be done at district level by the District Health Organisation. Participation of health workers and the community will then be more active and relevant to the needs of the community.     

The impact of reducing financial barriers on utilisation of a primary health care facility in Rwanda

This study investigates the impact of subsidising community-based health insurance (mutuelle) enrolment, removing point-of-service co-payments, and improving service delivery on health facility utilisation rates in Mayange, a sector of rural Rwanda of approximately 25,000 people divided among five 'imidugudu' or small villages. While comprehensive service upgrades were introduced in the Mayange Health Centre between April 2006 and February 2007, utilisation rates remained similar to comparison sites. Between February 2007 and April 2007, subsidies for mutuelle enrolment established virtually 100% coverage. Immediately after co-payments were eliminated in February 2007, patient visits levelled at a rate triple the previous value. Regression analyses using data from Mayange and two comparison sites indicate that removing financial barriers resulted in about 0.6 additional annual visits for curative care per capita. Although based on a single local pilot, these findings suggest that in order to achieve improved health outcomes, key short-term objectives include improved service delivery and reduced financial barriers. Based on this pilot, higher utilisation rates may be affected if broader swaths of the population are enrolled in mutuelle and co-payments are eliminated. Health leaders in Rwanda should consider further studies to determine if the impact of eliminating co-payments and increasing subsidies for mutuelle enrolment as seen in Mayange holds at greater levels of scale. Broader studies to better elucidate the impact of enrolment subsidies and co-payment subsidies on utilisation, health outcomes, and costs would also provide policy insights.     

An evaluation model for oral health in primary care

This paper presents a model for assessing the quality of primary dental care and tests its applicability in municipalities in Santa Catarina State, Brazil. The model features two components: Management of Oral Health and Provision of Primary Oral Health Care. The first consists of the sub-components Inter-Sector Practice, Community Participation, Human Resources, and Infrastructure. The second includes the sub-components Promotion/Prevention and Diagnosis and Treatment throughout the life cycle (childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age). Forty indicators were developed in workshops with a group of experts. 207 municipalities participated in the evaluation, yielding a response rate of 70.6%. The model proved to be applicable and highly beneficial to municipalities of different sizes, allowing the identification of areas in which municipal managers need to improve their oral health practices. Another important contribution relates to managers' awareness of the need to improve data recording.     

Cervical cancer as a tracer condition: a proposal for evaluation of primary health care

The use of tracer conditions as an evaluative technique suggests the possibility of inferring the quality of health care and setting evaluation standards for programmed actions. As a government strategy, primary health care is a key element for reorganization of the Brazilian health care model. This study analyzes the use of cervical cancer as a tracer condition for assessing primary care. Based on the results from questions on measures to control the disease from the perspective of health professionals and cervical cancer patients, we constructed a matrix of indicators relating primary care attributes to process/results indicators. The analytical plan to validate the results used triangulation of methods, associating data from qualitative and quantitative approaches, in addition to combining and cross-analyzing the various actors' points of view. The results suggest that cervical cancer is an excellent tracer condition for primary care in general, based on the similarity of such concepts as accessibility, coverage, comprehensiveness, technical and scientific quality, and effectiveness.     

Simplifying the evaluation of primary health care programmes

Currently, there is considerable attention for health impact--as measured by mortality, morbidity or nutrition indicators, in the evaluation of primary health care (PHC) programmes. In most cases, health impact evaluations tend to be dominated by methodological discussions on data collection, analysis and interpretation, which are not relevant to the majority of PHC programmes. In this paper a theoretical framework of variables, affecting child survival, is presented. The key to this action-oriented framework is the identification of a set of intermediate variables which directly affect the health status of children, but can be influenced by PHC interventions as well. It is recommended that evaluations of PHC programmes should focus on these intermediate variables and be less concerned with health impact of the interventions.     

福建省基层医疗卫生综合评价

目的：了解福建省基层医疗卫生综合情况。方法：利用福建省医改中期评估调查表中＂医疗卫生综合情况调查表＂的基础资料和该表涉及的7项核心指标,运用RSR法、功效系数法和Z分评价法,对全省的基层医疗卫生综合情况进行分析。结果：通过九个设区市排名,县级市、市辖区和县级间的排名及不同经济发展水平县（市）的排名,发现区域医疗卫生综合情况与经济发展水平相关,且在机构、人力、公共卫生服务等方面存在差异。结论与建议：福建省主要存在基层医疗卫生机构区域发展不平衡、公共卫生服务发展不均等和基层医疗卫生人才队伍整体水平较低等问题。建议自主发展和财政投入相结合,促进基层医疗卫生机构区域平衡发展;专项经费保障和标准化体系建设相结合,促进公共卫生服务均等化发展;人事和经费保障制度相结合,加强卫生人才队伍建设。     

Use of a tracer activity for health centre evaluation

The effectiveness of five Finnish health centres was assessed on the basis of a study of their physiotherapy units. This single area of activity proved to be a valid indicator of the general state of affairs in the centres.