Tissue factor and thrombomodulin expression on endothelial cell-seeded collagen modules for tissue engineering

The creation of functional tissue engineering constructs to repair or replace diseased tissues requires a well-formed vasculature network within the construct and the endothelial cells lining that vascular bed must display a nonthrombogenic phenotype. A new approach to tissue engineering involves the assembly of smaller components (modules fabricated at the hundred micron scale) into larger constructs. The modules, collagen gel containing the particular tissue cell of interest, are covered with endothelial cells prior to assembly so that the interconnected channels that are formed are lined with endothelial cells, creating a mimic of a vascular network. Here, we confirmed (using confocal microscopy primarily) that the human umbilical vein endothelial cells, seeded on collagen gel modules without a second embedded cell and without flow, bore the molecular markers of low thrombogenicity. Two days, after seeding on the modules, endothelial cells displayed the typical cobblestone morphology, formed tight cell-cell junctions and covered the whole module surface. Immunofluorescence staining showed that at both 2 days and 7 days after seeding, only a few cells expressed tissue factor while this number was dramatically increased after TNFalpha stimulation. On the other hand, thrombomodulin was expressed by the majority of seeded cells and expression was reduced after TNFalpha stimulation.     

关节软骨体外构建力学环境的研究进展

很多物理因素都影响软骨组织的生长和发育,其中力学因素起主要作用。软骨的生长、发育是力学调控的适应过程。当前采用多种力学条件应用于软骨生物反应器,如流体剪应力、液体压力、直接压缩等,或其中部分组合,但这些条件还没有构建出与活体软骨结构-功能相匹配的人工软骨。如果一种载荷能适合构建软骨,那么这种载荷首先能保证培养物内部信号分子、营养和废物的有效运输;其次,能对支架内种子细胞特定的力学刺激;第三,能促进培养物结构-功能的发展。本文回顾、分析当前多种力学条件的作用效果,其中流体剪应力、液体压力、拉伸、直接压缩或变形剪应力都是软骨受力状态的部分体现。作者认为滚压载荷是软骨培养的合适力学环境,它是当前多种力学条件的一个综合指标,对软骨培养物可以形成纵向的动态压缩和横向的动态变形剪应力,并且有利于细胞新陈代谢物质的运输,因此,滚压环境可能是人工软骨结构-功能构建的发展方向。     

Musculoskeletal tissue engineering with human umbilical cord mesenchymal stromal cells

Multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) hold tremendous promise for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, yet with so many sources of MSCs, what are the primary criteria for selecting leading candidates? Ideally, the cells will be multipotent, inexpensive, lack donor site morbidity, donor materials should be readily available in large numbers, immunocompatible, politically benign and expandable in vitro for several passages. Bone marrow MSCs do not meet all of these criteria and neither do embryonic stem cells. However, a promising new cell source is emerging in tissue engineering that appears to meet these criteria: MSCs derived from Wharton's jelly of umbilical cord MSCs. Exposed to appropriate conditions, umbilical cord MSCs can differentiate in vitro along several cell lineages such as the chondrocyte, osteoblast, adipocyte, myocyte, neuronal, pancreatic or hepatocyte lineages. In animal models, umbilical cord MSCs have demonstrated in vivo differentiation ability and promising immunocompatibility with host organs/tissues, even in xenotransplantation. In this article, we address their cellular characteristics, multipotent differentiation ability and potential for tissue engineering with an emphasis on musculoskeletal tissue engineering.     

脐带间充质干细胞在骨组织工程中的应用进展

背景：在骨组织工程领域,对新型种子细胞脐带间充质干细胞的研究逐渐增多。 目的：针对脐带间充质干细胞的分离培养、生物学特征及其在骨组织中所用载体进行综述。 方法：由第一作者应用计算机检索1999-01/2011-03 PubMed数据库及中国期刊全文数据库中有关脐带间充质干细胞分离培养、生物学特征、载体方面的文章。英文检索词为“umbilical cord stem cell,tissue engineering”,中文检索词为“脐带间充质干细胞,骨组织工程”。排除重复性研究及无关研究,共保留46篇文章进行综述。 结果与结论：脐带间充质干细胞具备胚胎和成体干细胞的多重特点,并且符合国际细胞疗法协会制定的间充质干细胞标准,但是脐带间充质干细胞的分离培养、诱导分化方法等尚不完善,应进一步深入分析。在脐带干细胞的载体方面,单一的材料支架目前研究已很多,对于复合材料载体与可注射性载体的研究可能是今后的热点。     

脐血间充质干细胞在软骨组织工程中的应用

背景：关节软骨修复再生能力较差,软骨缺损的修复与功能重建是关节外科的一大难题,也是近年研究热点之一,而软骨组织工程技术的发展为其提供了新的思路和方法。 目的：总结和分析脐血间充质干细胞的生物学特性及其在软骨组织工程中的研究与应用。 方法：通过计算机检索中国期刊全文数据库及PubMed数据库2000-01/2010-12的有关文献资料,分别以“脐血间充质干细胞,组织工程,软骨缺损”为中文检索词,“umbilical cord blood mesenchymal stem cells,tissue engineering,cartilage repair”为英文检索词,纳入脐血间充质干细胞和软骨组织工程的相关文献,排除重复性研究,共选取33篇文献做进一步分析。 结果与结论：脐血间充质干细胞以其固有的取材方便、免疫原性较弱、分化能力强以及被病毒细菌污染率低等特有的优势,成为软骨组织工程理想的种子细胞,将在未来软骨组织工程的研究及应用中发挥重要的作用。     

Cardiovascular tissue engineering: a new laminar flow chamber for in vitro improvement of mechanical tissue properties

A new in vitro flow system was developed to investigate the impact of laminar flow on extracellular matrix formation and tissue development. The dynamic in vitro system was designed to provide a cross flow arrangement of main flow induced by a dialysis roller pump (500 ml/min), and nutrition flow by a perfusion pump (3 ml/hr). Poly-L-lysine precoated polyglycolic acid (PGA) scaffolds (3.14 cm2) were seeded with myofibroblasts of human aortic origin (3.0 x 10(6) cells/ mesh) and incubated for 14 days under static conditions. The tissue was exposed to shear stress over a time period of 14 days (n = 4). The control group was seeded under static conditions (n = 4). To obtain a CO2 independent medium, 25 mM HEPES and 1 mM bicarbonate buffer was supplemented to modified MEM without bicarbonate. Gas samples were collected from the medium, and hydroxyproline assay was performed as a marker of collagen production. The newly developed flow system maintained stable cell culture conditions, with the hydroxyproline concentration significantly higher in group F (p < 0.05). These preliminary experiences with a new in vitro tissue culture system demonstrate the feasibility of using flow induced mechanical stress to enhance extracellular matrix formation.     

软骨组织工程中力学因素的影响及应用

力学因素是软骨组织工程中的重要影响因素之一。近年来的研究表明，力学作用可以刺激细胞因子及激素的分泌，改变三维支架上培养的软骨细胞的新陈代谢，从而促进软骨组织的生长与重建。目前已经有诸多关于体外构建软骨组织的报道，但对于其中的力学因素的影响（包括力学因素对软骨细胞增殖的促进及力学刺激的传导机制等）还没有完全认识。就以上几方面做一综述，并简单介绍生物反应器在软骨组织工程中的应用。     

软骨组织工程中力学因素的影响及应用

力学因素是软骨组织工程中的重要影响因素之一。近年来的研究表明,力学作用可以刺激细胞因子及激素的分泌,改变三维支架上培养的软骨细胞的新陈代谢,从而促进软骨组织的生长与重建。目前已经有诸多关于体外构建软骨组织的报道,但对于其中的力学因素的影响(包括力学因素对软骨细胞增殖的促进及力学刺激的传导机制等)还没有完全认识。就以上几方面做一综述,并简单介绍生物反应器在软骨组织工程中的应用。     

Bone tissue engineering in a rotating bioreactor using a microcarrier matrix system

A novel approach was utilized to grow in vitro mineralized bone tissue using lighter-than-water, polymeric scaffolds in a high aspect ratio rotating bioreactor. We have adapted polymer microencapsulation methods for the formation of hollow, lighter-than-water microcarriers of degradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid). Scaffolds were fabricated by sintering together lighter-than-water microcarriers from 500 to 860 microm in diameter to create a fully interconnected, three-dimensional network with an average pore size of 187 microm and aggregate density of 0.65 g/mL. Motion in the rotating bioreactor was characterized by numerical simulation and by direct measurement using an in situ particle tracking system. Scaffold constructs established a near circular trajectory in the fluid medium with a terminal velocity of 98 mm/s while avoiding collision with the bioreactor wall. Preliminary cell culture studies on these scaffolds show that osteoblast-like cells readily attached to microcarrier scaffolds using controlled seeding conditions with an average cell density of 6.5 x 10(4) cells/cm(2). The maximum shear stress imparted to attached cells was estimated to be 3.9 dynes/cm(2). In addition, cells cultured in vitro on these lighter-than-water scaffolds retained their osteoblastic phenotype and showed significant increases in alkaline phosphatase expression and alizarin red staining by day 7 as compared with statically cultured controls.     

骨组织工程化培养中成骨细胞电学环境的影响

目的探讨电学环境对培养在聚吡咯/聚乳酸(PPy/PLA)骨组织工程材料上成骨细胞的影响.方法化学氧化法制备含有10%PPy的PPy/PLA复合膜,将3～6代原代培养的成骨细胞种植其上,使用O、12.5、25、50、75、100、125、150、175和2001μA/cm2的电流密度刺激,分别使用MTT法、碱性磷酸酶(ALP)活性和胞外钙基质的含量测定成骨细胞在复合膜上的增殖、分化和矿化情况.结果 50和75μA/cm2是促进细胞增殖的最适合电流值,50μA/cm2能显著促进细胞的分化和矿化.结论电刺激可以促进种植在电活性材料上成骨细胞的增殖,提高细胞的活性,为骨组织的重建、加速骨界面的愈合开辟一条新的道路.     

Scaffold-free vascular tissue engineering using bioprinting

Current limitations of exogenous scaffolds or extracellular matrix based materials have underlined the need for alternative tissue-engineering solutions. Scaffolds may elicit adverse host responses and interfere with direct cell–cell interaction, as well as assembly and alignment of cell-produced ECM. Thus, fabrication techniques for production of scaffold-free engineered tissue constructs have recently emerged. Here we report on a fully biological self-assembly approach, which we implement through a rapid prototyping bioprinting method for scaffold-free small diameter vascular reconstruction. Various vascular cell types, including smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts, were aggregated into discrete units, either multicellular spheroids or cylinders of controllable diameter (300–500 μm). These were printed layer-by-layer concomitantly with agarose rods, used here as a molding template. The post-printing fusion of the discrete units resulted in single- and double-layered small diameter vascular tubes (OD ranging from 0.9 to 2.5 mm). A unique aspect of the method is the ability to engineer vessels of distinct shapes and hierarchical trees that combine tubes of distinct diameters. The technique is quick and easily scalable.     

Three-dimensional cardiac tissue engineering using a thermoresponsive artificial extracellular matrix

The purpose of this study was to try to reconstitute three-dimensional cardiac tissue using a thermoresponsive artificial extracellular matrix, poly (N-isopropylacrylamide)-grafted gelatin (PNIPAM-gelatin), as the scaffold. PNIPAM-gelatin solution gels almost immediately when heated above 34 degrees C. We thought this property could become advantageous as scaffolding for reconstituting three-dimensional tissue. Because PNIPAM-gelatin solution gels so quickly, all seeded cells in PNIPAM-gelatin solution would become entrapped and uniformly distributed toward three dimensions. Thus it would be possible to reconstitute three-dimensional tissue by a very simple method of mixing cells and PNIPAM-gelatin solution. Fetal rat cardiac cells were mixed with PNIPAM-gelatin solution, incubated at 37 degrees C to allow the mixture to gel, and cultured in vitro. To define suitable culture conditions the following parameters were tested: (1) PNIPAM-gelatin concentration, 0.04 approximately 0.125 mg/ml; (2) cell seeding density, 1 approximately 50 x 10(6) cells/ml; and (3) addition or not of hyaluronic acid. With a PNIPAM-gelatin concentration of 0.05 mg/ml, a cell seeding density of 50 x 10(6) cells/ml, and the addition of hyaluronic acid, tissue was reconstituted and it contracted synchronously. After hematoxylin and eosin staining, the cells reconstituted three-dimensional tissue, and the tissue cross-section was approximately 60 microm thick.     

Simultaneous application of interstitial flow and cyclic mechanical strain to a three-dimensional cell-seeded hydrogel

The present study describes the design and validation of a simple apparatus to apply simultaneous mechanical and fluidic stress to three-dimensional (3D) cell-seeded collagen hydrogels. Constructs were formed in wells in a silicone substrate that could be stretched cyclically, and were also fitted with inlet ports to apply fluid flow. Acid etching was used to retain adhesion of the gels to the walls of the well, and an acellular layer of collagen hydrogel was used to distribute flow evenly. Finite element modeling showed that 5% uniaxial strain applied to the entire silicone substrate resulted in ～6.5% strain in each of the gel constructs. Permeability testing and flow observation showed that acellular hydrogels were fourfold more permeable than cardiac fibroblast-seeded gels, and that the fluid distributed evenly in the acellular layer before entering the cell-seeded gel. Viability testing and imaging demonstrated that cells remained viable with expected fibroblast morphology for the 120 h duration of the experiments. These results demonstrate that this simple bioreactor can be used to study the effects of mechanical strain and interstitial flow in 3D protein hydrogels. Such 3D tissue models have utility in studying cell and tissue responses to their mechanical environment.     

Development of the human umbilical vein scaffold for cardiovascular tissue engineering applications

Biologic function and the mechanical performance of vascular grafting materials are important predictors of graft patency. As such, "functional" materials that improve biologic integration and function have become increasingly sought after. An important alternative to synthetic materials is the use of biomaterials derived from ex vivo tissues that retain significant biologic and mechanical function. Unfortunately, inconsistent mechanical properties that result from tedious, time consuming, manual dissection methods have reduced the potential usefulness of many of these materials. We describe the preparation of the human umbilical vein (HUV) for use as an acellular, three-dimensional, vascular scaffold using a novel, automated dissection methodology. The goal of this investigation was to determine the effectiveness of the autodissection methodology to yield an ex vivo biomaterial with improved uniformity and reduced variance. Mechanical properties, including burst pressure, compliance, uniaxial tension testing, and suture holding capacity, were assessed to determine the suitability of the HUV scaffold for vascular tissue engineering applications. The automated methodology results in a tubular scaffold with significantly reduced sample to sample variation, requiring significantly less time to excise the vein from the umbilical cord than manual dissection methods. Short-term analysis of the interactions between primary human vascular smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts HUV scaffold have shown an excellent potential for cellular integration by native cellular remodeling processes. Our work has shown that the HUV scaffold is mechanically sound, uniform, and maintains its biphasic stress-strain relationship throughout tissue processing. By maintaining the mechanical properties of the native blood vessels, in concert with promising cellular interactions, the HUV scaffold may lead to improved grafts for vascular reconstructive surgeries.     

Cell adhesion and mechanical properties of a flexible scaffold for cardiac tissue engineering

Cardiac tissue engineering is focused on obtaining functional cardiomyocyte constructs to provide an alternative to cellular cardiomyoplasty. Mechanical stimuli have been shown to stimulate protein expression and the differentiation of mammalian cells from contractile tissues. Our aim was to obtain a flexible scaffold which could be used to apply mechanical forces during tissue regeneration. Poly(1,8-octanediol-co-citric acid) (POC) is an elastomer that can be processed into scaffolds for tissue engineering. We investigated the effect of modifying the porosity on the mechanical properties of the POC scaffolds. In addition, the effects of the storage method and strain rate on material integrity were assessed. The maximum elongation of POC porous films varied from 60% to 160% of their original length. A decrease in the porosity caused a rise in this elastic modulus. The attachment of HL-1 cardiomyocytes to POC was assessed on films coated with fibronectin, collagen and laminin. These extracellular matrix proteins promoted cell adhesion in a protein-type- and concentration-dependent manner. Therefore, POC scaffolds can be optimised to meet the mechanical and biological parameters needed for cardiac culture. This porous material has the potential to be used for cardiac tissue engineering as well as for other soft tissue applications.     

Design and analysis of tissue engineering scaffolds that mimic soft tissue mechanical anisotropy

Tissue engineered constructs must exhibit tissue-like functional properties, including mechanical behavior comparable to the native tissues they are intended to replace. Moreover, the ability to reversibly undergo large strains can help to promote and guide tissue growth. Electrospun poly (ester urethane) ureas (ES-PEUU) are elastomeric and allow for the control of fiber diameter, porosity, and degradation rate. ES-PEUU scaffolds can be fabricated to have a well-aligned fiber network, which is important for applications involving mechanically anisotropic soft tissues. We have developed ES-PEUU scaffolds under variable speed conditions and modeled the effects of fiber orientation on the macro-mechanical properties of the scaffold. To illustrate the ability to simulate native tissue mechanical behavior, we demonstrated that the high velocity spun scaffolds exhibited highly anisotropic mechanical properties closely resembling the native pulmonary heart valve leaflet. Moreover, use of the present fiber-level structural constitutive model allows for the determination of electrospinning conditions to tailor ES-PEUU scaffolds for specific soft tissue applications. The results of this study will help to provide the basis for rationally designed mechanically anisotropic soft tissue engineered implants.     

Advancing tissue engineering by using electrospun nanofibers

Electrospinning is a versatile technique that enables the development of nanofiber-based scaffolds, from a variety of polymers that may have drug-release properties. Using nanofibers, it is now possible to produce biomimetic scaffolds that can mimic the extracellular matrix for tissue engineering. Interestingly, nanofibers can guide cell growth along their direction. Combining factors like fiber diameter, alignment and chemicals offers new ways to control tissue engineering. In vivo evaluation of nanomats included their degradation, tissue reactions and engineering of specific tissues. New advances made in electrospinning, especially in drug delivery, support the massive potential of these nanobiomaterials. Nevertheless, there is already at least one product based on electrospun nanofibers with drug-release properties in a Phase III clinical trial, for wound dressing. Hopefully, clinical applications in tissue engineering will follow to enhance the success of regenerative therapies.     

Vaginoplasty using autologous in vitro cultured vaginal tissue in a patient with Mayer-von-Rokitansky-Kuster-Hauser syndrome

Mayer-von-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser syndrome (MRKHS) is characterized by vaginal agenesis with variable Müllerian duct abnormalities. The Abbè-McIndoe technique is considered a valid treatment option for vaginoplasty but no consensus has been reached on what material should be used for the neovagina canal wall lining. We report the first case of autologous vaginal tissue transplantation in a 28-year-old women with MRKHS. The patient was subjected to a 1 cm2 full-thickness mucosal biopsy from the vaginal vestibule. Following enzymatic dissociation, cells were inoculated onto collagen IV-coated plates and cultured for 2 weeks. The patient was subjected to a vaginoplasty with a modified Abbè-McIndoe vaginoplasty with 314 cm2 autologous in vitro cultured vaginal tissue for the canal lining. At 1 month from surgery, the vagina appeared normal in length and depth and a vaginal biopsy revealed normal vaginal tissue. The use of autologous in vitro cultured vaginal tissue to create a neovagina appears as an easy, minimally invasive and useful method.     

Syngeneic cerebral cortical tissue as a stimulator of immunogenesis in thymectomized mice

Experiments on CBA mice showed that homogenate of gray matter (cortex) of syngeneic brain contains components which restore the population of splenic T-cells in thymectomized animals and stimulate the immune response to sheep's red blood cells. Homogenate of white matter has much weaker activity; indeed it could be due to gray matter contaminating the preparation. Homogenate of syngeneic muscle tissue has no biological activity.Laboratory of General Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, Leningrad. (Presented by Academician of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR V. I. Ioffe.) Translated from Byulleten' Éksperimental'noi Biologii i Meditsiny, Vol. 86, No. 9, pp. 327–330, September, 1978.