Recent advances in the management of pleural sepsis: What is the evidence?

The management of pleural sepsis involves early diagnosis, administration of appropriate antibiotics, recognition of poor prognostic features and timely intervention to drain the infected pleural space. Important recent advances in the management of pleural sepsis include better imaging techniques, the use of flexible image-guided drainage catheters, adjunctive intrapleural thrombolytic therapy and the introduction of interventional thoracoscopy. These advances have been augmented, in the past year, by results from prospective controlled studies comparing different therapeutic options. This review describes an evidence-based approach to the management of pleural sepsis which incorporates recent therapeutic advances.     

Tuberculous pleural effusion

Tuberculous effusion is a common disease entity with a spectrum of presentations from a largely benign effusion, which resolves completely, to a complicated effusion with loculations, pleural thickening and even frank empyema, all of which may have a lasting effect on lung function. The pathogenesis is a combination of true pleural infection and an effusive hypersensitivity reaction, compartmentalized within the pleural space. Diagnostic thoracentesis with thorough pleural fluid analysis including biomarkers such as adenosine deaminase and gamma interferon achieves high accuracy in the correct clinical context. Definitive diagnosis may require invasive procedures to demonstrate histological evidence of caseating granulomas or microbiological evidence of the organism on smear or culture. Drug resistance is an emerging problem that requires vigilance and extra effort to acquire a complete drug sensitivity profile for each tuberculous effusion treated. Nucleic acid amplification tests such as Xpert MTB/RIF can be invaluable in this instance; however, the yield is low in pleural fluid. Treatment consists of standard anti‐tuberculous therapy or a guideline‐based individualized regimen in the case of drug resistance. There is low‐quality evidence that suggests possible benefit from corticosteroids; however, they are not currently recommended due to concomitant increased risk of adverse effects. Small studies report some short‐ and long‐term benefit from interventions such as therapeutic thoracentesis, intrapleural fibrinolytics and surgery but many questions remain to be answered.     

Role of Pleural Fluid C-Reactive Protein Concentration in Discriminating Uncomplicated Parapneumonic Pleural Effusions from Complicated Parapneumonic Effusion and Empyema

The aim of this study was to determine whether pleural fluid C-reactive protein (CRP) is useful in distinguishing complicated parapneumonic pleural effusion (CPPE) and empyema from uncomplicated parapneumonic pleural effusions (UPPE). A total of 69 consecutive patients with parapneumonic effusions were enrolled in the study: 29 with UPPE, 29 with CPPE, and 11 with empyema. Concentrations of standard biochemical parameters together with CRP in the pleural fluid were measured using an immunoturbidimetric assay. Pleural CRP was significantly higher in CPPE (11.6 mg/dl) and in empyema (12.2 mg/dl) than in UPPE (3.9 mg/dl). A cutoff value of 8.7 mg/dl for pleural CRP in the diagnosis of CPPE and empyema resulted in a sensitivity, specificity, and area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve (AUC) of 0.80, 0.97 and 0.94, respectively. Traditional lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) ≥ 1000 U/L and glucose ≤ 60 mg/dl can differentiate CPPE and empyema from UPPE, with the sensitivity, specificity, and AUC achieving 0.75/0.60.1.00/1.00,0.95/0.22, respectively. However, for the detection of CPPE and empyema, the combination of pleural fluid CRP ≥ 8.7 mg/dl and LDH ≥ 1000 U/L was valuable in achieving a sensitivity, specificity, and AUC of 0.97/1,00/0.95. This study suggests that measurement of pleural CRP can be useful in the workup of patients with a parapneumonic effusion in order to differentiate CPPE from UPPE.     

血清降钙素原对渗出性胸腔积液病因的鉴别价值

目的考察血清降钙素原(PCT)水平与渗出性胸腔积液病因的关系。方法对渗出性胸腔积液患者进行血清PCT检测。结果纳入70例患者。结核性、肺炎旁性、脓胸、恶性和结缔组织病相关性胸腔积液的平均PCT分别为(0.052±0.006)ng/ml、(0..224±0.223)ng/ml、(3.230±4.517)ng/ml、(0.073±0.031)ng/ml和0.115 ng/ml,各组PCT水平相比有统计学差异(非参数检验,χ2=47.111,P<0.001)。PCT≥0.295 ng/ml为界值时判断脓胸的灵敏度为0.909,特异度为0.949;取PCT≥0.075 ng/ml为界值,对非结核感染性渗出液的灵敏度为0.920,特异度为0.814。结论血PCT水平有助于胸腔渗出液病因的鉴别诊断。     

Management of complicated parapneumonic effusions and thoracic empyema

The optimal management of loculated parapneumonic effusions and empyema includes breakdown of adhesions to effect drainage of infected pleural fluid. The use of fibrinolytics intrapleurally appears to enhance intercostal tube drainage, reducing the requirement for subsequent surgical mechanical debridement. This article discusses the evidence for intrapleural fibrinolytics, their good safety profile and the practicalities of dose and administration. It also reviews early surgical intervention, which may be indicated for medical treatment failure and, some would argue, as a suitable alternative to other medical interventions.     

Pleural fluid interleukin-8 and C-reactive protein for discriminating complicated non-purulent from uncomplicated parapneumonic effusions

Background and objective:   This study was designed to test the hypothesis that measurement of IL-8 and CRP in pleural fluid could improve the identification of patients with non-purulent parapneumonic effusions that ultimately require chest tube drainage.
Methods:   We assessed IL-8, CRP and three classical parameters (pH, glucose and LDH) in the pleural fluid of 100 patients with parapneumonic effusions. Forty-nine of these patients had non-purulent complicated effusions (complicated parapneumonic pleural effusion, CPPE), and 51 had uncomplicated parapneumonic pleural effusions (UPPE). Receiver-operating characteristic curves were used to assess the sensitivity and specificity of pleural fluid biochemical parameters for differentiating among the two patient groups. IL-8 production was determined using a commercially available ELISA kit, and CRP was measured by immunoassay.
Results:   At a cutoff value of 1000 pg/mL, IL-8 differentiated CPPE from UPPE with a sensitivity of 84% and a specificity of 82%. Likewise, CRP levels were higher in CPPE than in UPPE, and showed 72% sensitivity and 71% specificity at a cutoff value of 80 mg/L. We found that all five pleural fluid tests showed similar diagnostic accuracies when evaluated by receiver-operating characteristic analysis. However, multivariate analysis indicated that the size of the effusion, as well as pleural fluid pH and IL-8 concentration, were the best discriminatory parameters, with likelihood ratios of 6.4, 4.4 and 3.9, respectively.
Conclusions:   Pleural fluid IL-8 is an accurate marker for the identification of non-purulent CPPE.     

Surgical management of pleural space infections

Adequate drainage of pleural space infections is generally required to achieve resolution of the infection and full expansion of the underlying lung. An understanding of the normal pathologic evolution of pleural infection is necessary to choose the optimal method of pleural drainage. The timing of surgical drainage and the choice of drainage procedure in each case should be based upon the duration of the infection, the characteristics of the pleural fluid, the presence of loculations within the pleural space, and the overall condition of the patient. Thoracentesis should be performed to confirm a suspected diagnosis of pleural empyema. The diagnostic information from thoracentesis may be augmented by imaging techniques such as computed tomography, ultrasound, or empyemagrams. Such radiographic studies are important in the planning of either closed or open drainage. Repeated thoracentesis are rarely adequate for drainage of an established empyema. Closed tube thoracostomy requires careful placement and is very effective if instituted in the early stage of pleural infection. Open drainage with rib resection for chest tube placement is probably the most versatile form of pleural drainage. Decortication is promptly curative and should be employed in the latter stages of empyema in patients who can tolerate the procedure. Chronic open flap drainage is reserved for debilitated patients or patients with destroyed underlying lung.     

复杂性肺炎旁胸腔积液和脓胸的治疗进展

复杂性肺炎旁胸腔积液（CPE）和脓胸（PE）的治疗,包括抗菌药的应用和胸膜腔引流。前者需选用对胸膜腔通透性强的敏感抗菌药物,后者包括内科保守治疗和外科手术治疗。近年来开展的纤维蛋白溶解治疗、脱氧核糖核酸酶治疗、电视辅助胸腔镜手术等,可能具有减少开胸手术机会和缩短住院时间等优点。本文就多种抗菌药在感染性胸膜腔的通透性及各种引流方法的有效性和安全性作一评价。     

Minimally invasive treatment of complicated parapneumonic effusions and empyemas in adults

Objectives

To summarize the evidence underlying the non‐surgical management of patients with complicated parapneumonic effusions (CPPE) or empyemas.

Data source

All articles published in PubMed according to their relevance with the subject were identified.

Results and conclusions

There is a lack of powered randomized controlled studies comparing medical and surgical approaches to CPPE/empyemas in adults. In addition to antibiotics for an unspecified period of time, CPPE/empyemas can initially be treated with a therapeutic thoracentesis (which can be repeated if necessary), the insertion of a small‐bore chest catheter under ultrasound guidance, or the administration through the catheter of fibrinolytics alone, saline alone or fibrinolytics in combination with either saline or deoxyribonuclease. These conservative measures resolve more than 90% of the cases, thus making a rescue surgery unnecessary.     

Use of indwelling pleural catheters for chronic pleural infection

Recurrent, chronic pleural infection creates difficult management issues. Surgical drainage is currently recommended for patients who have failed initial "medical treatment" (ie, tube thoracostomy and antibiotic therapy), but the options for patients not fit for surgery are limited. Prolonged closed tube drainage may be an option in this group, although concerns exist regarding the efficacy and risk of catheter blockage. Long-term indwelling pleural catheters are increasingly used for the treatment of recurrent malignant pleural effusion. Pleural infection is recognized as a complication and is cited as a contraindication to insertion of an indwelling pleural drain within the product literature. We report two patients with empyema in a fixed pleural space in whom the insertion of an ambulatory catheter produced successful drainage. Long-term indwelling pleural catheters may have a role in maintaining the drainage of a chronically infected pleural space that is not readily treated in other ways.     

Medical management of parapneumonic pleural disease

Considerable heterogeneity exists in the management of parapneumonic pleural disease. A randomized controlled trial (RCT) demonstrated the effectiveness of small-catheter drainage with fibrinolysis, but surgical devotees suggest this may only be applicable to "early" cases. We examined evidence-based medical management in "all-comers." We performed a retrospective database analysis of the management of all children with complex pleural effusion admitted to the John Radcliffe Hospital over the 7-year period 1996-2003. One hundred and ten children were admitted. Ten were excluded as they were part of a multicenter RCT and had received intrapleural saline instead of urokinase. Of the remaining 100, 51 were female and 49 male. Median age on admission was 5.8 years (range, 0.3-16.5). Symptoms preadmission averaged 11 days, with December the most common month for presentation. Ninety-six underwent chest ultrasound, confirming an effusion in all, described as loculated/septated (68) or echogenic (11). In 17 cases, no specific comment was made regarding the nature of the fluid seen on ultrasound. Ninety-five had subsequent chest tube drainage and then received intrapleural fibrinolysis with urokinase. An etiological organism was identified in 21 cases (21%) (Streptococcus pneumoniae in 10, group A Streptococcus in 5, Staphylococcus aureus in 4, Haemophilus influenzae in 1, and coliform in 1). In a further 9 cases (9%), Gram-positive organisms were seen on pleural fluid microscopy, but did not grow on culture. Two (2%) required surgery due to the persistence of symptoms and an inadequate response to medical management. Median duration of admission was 7 days (range, 2-21 days); median duration of stay from intervention was 5 days (range, 2-19 days). At median follow-up of 8 weeks (range, 3-20 weeks), all children were symptom-free, with minimal pleural thickening on chest X-ray. In conclusion, antibiotic therapy with chest drain insertion and intrapleural urokinase is effective in treating complex parapneumonic effusion and is associated with a good long-term outcome.     

内置引流管加尿激酶治疗结核性包裹性胸腔积液

目的：探讨胸腔内留置深静脉管并注入尿激酶对结核性包裹性胸腔积液的治疗作用。方法：抗结核治疗下，常规胸腔内留置深静脉管引流胸水，治疗组胸腔内注入尿激酶25万u 地塞米松10mg 生理盐水10ml／次，对照组胸腔内只注入地塞米松10mg 生理盐水10ml／次。结果：尿激酶组总引流量明显优于对照组．遗留胸膜肥厚明显少于对照组，且无并发症发生。结论：内置引流管加尿激酶治疗结核性包裹性胸腔积液的方法方便、安全，疗效满意，值得在临床上推广应用。     

Is there any role for thoracoscopy in the diagnosis of benign pleural effusions

Thoracoscopy in the endoscopy suite, has a high diagnostic yield of undiagnosed pleural effusions with minimal and mild complications. Whereas relatively minimal invasive techniques, such as thoracentesis, image‐guided pleural biopsy or blind pleural biopsy, can yield sufficient cell or tissue material to establish the diagnosis of the underlying condition, more definite invasive diagnostic and therapeutic procedure, such as thoracoscopy, may be required for accurate sampling and diagnosis, and further provide real‐time treatment options in same procedure. If thoracoscopy is considered the gold standard for the diagnosis is a fact in case. The current review aims to provide informations on thoracoscopy indications in benign pleural diseases according to up to date publications.     

Percentage reduction of pleural effusion as a simple predictor of pleural scarring in tuberculous pleuritis

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to evaluate the utility of serum and pleural fluid biomarkers for predicting residual pleural scarring (RPS) in tuberculous pleuritis. METHODOLOGY: A retrospective study of patients with pleural tuberculosis was performed. Demographic data, clinical parameters, haematological indices, serum and pleural fluid biochemistry and pleural effusion area were assessed for correlation with the extent of RPS. RESULTS: RPS was found in 41.4% of the 70 cases evaluated, with significant pleural scarring being present in 7.1%. It was more common in males (odds ratio 5.55). Among the variables studied, only the percentage reduction of the effusion after 2 weeks of treatment was found to independently predict the extent of RPS (r=-0.502, P<0.001). CONCLUSION: RPS was more common in males and the percentage reduction in pleural effusion on CXR after 2 weeks of treatment was found to be a useful predictor of RPS.     

胸膜腔注入尿激酶治疗结核性多房性胸腔积液价值

目的探讨超声引导胸膜腔内注射尿激酶治疗结核性多房性胸腔积液的临床应用价值。方法将40例结核性多房性胸腔积液患者随机分为研究组和对照组。研究组在超声引导定位下向胸腔内穿刺抽液后,注射尿激酶10万U治疗;对照组给予胸膜腔穿刺抽液治疗。结果 1.研究组患者胸腔积液消失时间要短于对照组,胸膜肥厚度小于对照组,肺功能中FEV1%、FVC%高于对照组,其差异均具有统计学意义(P<0.05);2.研究组患者总有效率为95%;对照组患者总有效率65%,差异具有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论超声引导胸膜腔内注射尿激酶治疗结核性多房性胸腔积液是一种安全、可靠、有效的治疗方法,值得临床推广应用。     

结核感染T细胞斑点试验联合胸腔积液腺苷脱氢酶检测对结核性胸腔积液的诊断价值研究

目的?分析结核感染T细胞斑点试验（tuberculosis infection T cell spot test, T-SPOT.TB）结合胸腔积液生化检测对结核性胸腔积液的诊断价值。方法?对2019年2月—2022年2月期间就诊于河北省胸科医院的126例有肺部病灶伴胸腔积液患者展开研究,所有患者均完成T-SPOT.TB试验和入院当天的胸腔积液生化检测,依据是否存在结核杆菌感染将其分为结核组（n=48,确诊为结核性胸腔积液）和对照组（n=78,确诊为非结核性肺部病灶伴胸腔积液）。统计并比较2组患者的各项一般资料和临床资料,Logistic多因素分析结核性胸腔积液的危险因素,并应用ROC曲线分析胸腔积液T-SPOT.TB和胸腔积液腺苷脱氨酶（adenosine deaminase, ADA）及2者联合对结核性胸腔积液的诊断价值。结果?Logistic多因素分析结果显示,结核病接触史、结核性胸腔积液结核菌素试验阴性率较高、胸腔积液T-SPOT.TB阳性、胸腔积液ADA≥45 U/L为发生结核性胸腔积液的危险因素（P均＜0.05）。ROC曲线分析显示胸腔积液T-SPOT.TB和胸腔积液ADA诊断结核性胸腔积液的最佳临界值分别为276.43×106/ml和45.36 U/L,AUC分别为0.67和0.63,灵敏度分别为74.26％和69.26％,特异度分别为72.17％和68.84％,2者联合诊断的AUC为0.86,灵敏度为81.65％,特异度为79.43％。结论?T-SPOT.TB结合胸腔积液检测对诊断结核性胸腔积液患者有较佳价值。