80岁以上高龄脑出血急性期患者的临床特点

目的探讨80岁以上高龄脑出血急性期患者的临床特点。方法回顾分析42例80岁以上(高龄组)和同期住院的84例50～70岁(对照组)脑出血急性期患者的一般情况、危险因素、临床表现、CT检查结果、并发症和治疗结果,并将2组资料进行统计学分析。结果与对照组相比,高龄组患者女性比例上升,较少合并高血压、吸烟等危险因素;出血部位也以基底节多见,但比例下降,而脑叶出血比例明显增加,为第二好发部位;病因仍以高血压性脑出血为主,但比例明显降低;发病时头痛症状较少,神经功能损害较重,较多出现脑疝和继发肺部感染,住院期间病死率和致残率较高。多变量Logistic分析显示女性、脑叶出血为高龄脑出血独立正相关因素,高血压性脑出血、发病早期头痛症状和入院时神经功能评分(SSS)为独立负相关因素。结论80岁以上高龄脑出血急性期患者具有一些独特的临床规律,采取相应的措施将有助于提高诊治水平。     

80岁以上高龄脑出血急性期患者的临床特点

目的探讨80岁以上高龄脑出血急性期患者的临床特点。方法回顾分析42例80岁以上（高龄组）和同期住院的84例50～70岁（对照组）脑出血急性期患者的一般情况、危险因素、临床表现、CT检查结果、并发症和治疗结果，并将2组资料进行统计学分析。结果与对照组相比，高龄组患者女性比例上升，较少合并高血压、吸烟等危险因素；出血部位也以基底节多见，但比例下降，而脑叶出血比例明显增加，为第二好发部位；病因仍以高血压性脑出血为主，但比例明显降低；发病时头痛症状较少，神经功能损害较重，较多出现脑疝和继发肺部感染，住院期间病死率和致残率较高。多变量Logistic分析显示女性、脑叶出血为高龄脑出血独立正相关因素，高血压性脑出血、发病早期头痛症状和入院时神经功能评分（SSS）为独立负相关因素。结论80岁以上高龄脑出血急性期患者具有一些独特的临床规律，采取相应的措施将有助于提高诊治水平。     

脑小血管病

目的探讨伴皮质下梗死和白质脑病的常染色体显性遗传性脑动脉病(cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy,CADASIL)患者脑微出血(cerebral microbleeds,CMBs)的分布特征及临床意义。方法回顾性纳入2017年6月-2019年12月北京协和医院基因确诊的连续CADASIL患者21例(CADASIL组),以及性别匹配的高血压动脉硬化性脑小血管病患者21例(高血压脑小血管病组)。所有患者均行头MRI检查(含T2^*/SWI序列),盲法读片并记录CMBs的数量和部位,分析两组CMBs分布的差异。结果CADASIL组年龄和常见血管病危险因素比例均低于高血压脑小血管病组。CADASIL组47.6%患者检出CMBs(共计115个),而高血压脑小血管病组高达95.2%(共计218个)。CADASIL组CMBs分布以丘脑最常受累(45.2%),其次是脑叶(皮层/皮层下,35.7%)、基底节(11.3%)。高血压脑小血管病组则以丘脑以外的基底节CMBs最多见(35.3%),其次是脑叶(26.6%)、丘脑(19.2%)、脑干(16.1%)。CADASIL患者丘脑CMBs/总CMBs比例、丘脑CMBs/(基底节CMBs+脑干CMBs)比例均高于高血压脑小血管病组(均P<0.001)。结论CADASIL患者CMBs分布以丘脑最常见,其次是皮层/皮层下区域,而高血压脑小血管病患者则以丘脑以外的基底节、脑干更常见。     

不同性别青年脑出血临床分析

回顾分析近5年不同性别青年脑出血患者临床资料,男性60例、女性28例,男女比例约为2.14∶1。诸多危险因素中,男性吸烟（35%对0,P=0.000）、饮酒（28.33%对0,P=0.002）比例高于女性,女性高脂血症比例高于男性（10.71%对0,P=0.030）。男性脑出血病因以高血压居多（40%对14.29%,P=0.016）、女性以脑血管畸形为主（50%对23.33%,P=0.012）,男性脑出血好发部位主要位于基底节（35%对14.29%,P=0.045）、女性以脑叶为主（67.86%对40%,P=0.015）。提示不同性别青年脑出血在危险因素、出血部位、病因方面均存在差异。     

年轻人脑出血110例病因分析

目的 :探讨年轻人脑出血的病因和危险因素。方法 :选择 110例经过影像学证实为脑出血且年龄介于 15～ 4 4岁的患者 ,分析其危险因素、出血部位和发病原因。结果 :最常见的危险因素是高血压 (39.1% )和高甘油三酯血症(38.7% )。出血部位分别是基底节出血 38例 ,脑叶出血 34例 ,其他部位出血 38例。发病原因 :高血压病 4 1例 ,脑血管畸形 (含动静脉畸形、海绵状血管瘤及其他血管畸形 ) 18例 ,动脉瘤 2例 ,肿瘤 6例 ,其他 3例 ,原因不明 4 0例。结论 :高血压病、脑血管畸形和肿瘤是年轻人脑出血的常见原因 ,高血压和高甘油三酯血症是常见危险因素     

高血压脑出血合并上消化道出血临床分析

目的 探讨高血压脑出血的出血部位、出血量与消化道出血发生率及预后的关系.方法 对96例脑出血患者的临床表现、出血部位、出血量、血糖、治疗方法 进行分析.结果 上消化道出血发生率分别为壳核出血组36.46%, 丘脑出血组32.29%,脑干出血组13.54%,脑叶出血组17.71%.高血压脑出血合并上消化道出血组病死率为43.75%.结论 脑出血合并上消化道出血常见丘脑、脑干等部位病变,且出血量大者发生率高,脑出血并上消化道出血提示预后不良,病死率高.     

复发性脑出血103例临床分析

目的 探讨复发性脑出血的临床特点和发病机制。方法 对我院经CT证实的住院脑出血病人3200例中有复发性脑出血103例患者,分析其临床表现并探讨其可能的发病机制。结果 100例为2次出血,3例为3次出血,脑出血复发率为3．2％,2次出血者以基底节－基底节型最多（60％）,3次出血者3例均同时有基底节出血。61．2％再出血病灶位于首次出血的对侧,2例出血间隔时间大多在1年内（40．7％）,基底节－基底节型预后较差。结论 复发性脑出血有其特殊的临床表现,高血压控制不良可增加再出血的危险;基底节－基底节型出血原因多考虑高血压,而脑叶－脑叶型出血很可能与淀粉样脑血管病有关。     

脑出血昏迷患者继发多器官功能障碍综合征的危险因素分析

目的探讨脑出血昏迷患者继发多器官功能障碍综合征(MODS)的危险因素。方法抽取2014-11—2017-01荥阳市人民医院91例脑出血昏迷患者,根据是否继发MODS分为观察组(n=34)与对照组(n=57)。对2组一般资料[年龄、性别、出血部位(小脑、丘脑、脑叶)、血压、血肿量]、既往病史(糖尿病、高血压、脑卒中、冠心病)、相关评分[昏迷指数(GCS)、病情严重程度评分(APACHE?Ⅱ)]进行对比,分析脑出血昏迷患者继发MODS的危险因素。随访3个月,对比2组预后情况。结果观察组性别、出血部位、既往高血压史、脑卒中史及血压(SBP、DBP)与对照组比较,差异均无统计学意义(P0.05),观察组年龄、既往糖尿病史、冠心病史、血肿量及GCS评分、APACHE?Ⅱ评分与对照组比较,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。经Logistic多因素回归分析,年龄、糖尿病史、血肿量及GCS评分、APACHE?Ⅱ评分是脑出血昏迷患者继发MODS的重要危险因素(P0.05)。随访3个月后观察组预后情况较对照组更差,差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论脑出血昏迷患者继发MODS预后较差,年龄、既往糖尿病史、血肿量及GCS评分、APACHE?Ⅱ评分是引起脑出血昏迷患者继发MODS的危险因素。     

高血压性脑出血早期血肿扩大与血压变异性的关系

目的探讨高血压性脑出血早期血肿扩大与血压变异性(BPV)的关系。方法 2014年4月到2016年5月收治高血压性脑出血100例,入院后行24 h血压动态监测;根据CT检查结果将100例分为血肿扩大组(30例)和非血肿扩大组(70例);采用条件Logistic回归分析检验早期血肿扩大与BPV的关系。结果血肿扩大组最大收缩压(SBP)、平均SBP均明显高于非血肿扩大组(P0.05),两组最大舒张压(DBP)、平均DBP、SBP标准差(SD)、DBP SD、SBP变异系数(CV)、DBP CV均无统计学差异(P0.05);血肿扩大组血肿增大比例[(52.31±3.48)%]、血肿体积[(16.78±2.35)ml]均明显高于非血肿扩大组[分别为(23.18±2.89)%和(7.48±1.28)ml;P0.05]。Logistic回归分析结果显示,最大SBP、平均SBP是血肿扩大的独立危险因素(P0.05)。结论高血压性脑出血后24 h内血肿扩大与BPV无明显关系,而与SBP变化有关。     

CADASIL患者脑微出血分布特征及临床意义

目的 探讨伴皮质下梗死和白质脑病的常染色体显性遗传性脑动脉病（cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy，CADASIL）患者脑微出血（cerebral microbleeds，CMBs）的分布特征及临床意义。 方法 回顾性纳入2017年6月-2019年12月北京协和医院基因确诊的连续CADASIL患者21例（CADASIL 组），以及性别匹配的高血压动脉硬化性脑小血管病患者21例（高血压脑小血管病组）。所有患者均 行头MRI 检查（含T2 */SWI序列），盲法读片并记录CMBs的数量和部位，分析两组CMBs分布的差异。 结果 CADASIL组年龄和常见血管病危险因素比例均低于高血压脑小血管病组。CADASIL组47.6% 患者检出CMBs（共计115个），而高血压脑小血管病组高达95.2%（共计218个）。CADASIL组CMBs分 布以丘脑最常受累（45.2%），其次是脑叶（皮层/皮层下，35.7%）、基底节（11.3%）。高血压脑小 血管病组则以丘脑以外的基底节CMBs最多见（35.3%），其次是脑叶（26.6%）、丘脑（19.2%）、脑干 （16.1%）。CADASIL患者丘脑CMBs/总CMBs比例、丘脑CMBs/（基底节CMBs+脑干CMBs）比例均高于高 血压脑小血管病组（均P＜0.001）。 结论 CADASIL患者CMBs分布以丘脑最常见，其次是皮层/皮层下区域，而高血压脑小血管病患者 则以丘脑以外的基底节、脑干更常见。     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Neonatal Seizures: Problems in Diagnosis and Classification

Summary: The clinical identification of neonatal seizures is critical for the recognition of brain dysfunction; however, diagnosis is often difficult because of the poorly organized and varied nature of these behaviors. Current classification systems are limited in their ability to communicate motor, autonomic, and electroencephalo-graphic features of seizures precisely and to provide a basis for uniform effective diagnosis, therapy, and determination of prognosis. Recent investigations of neonates, utilizing bedside electroencephalographic/polygraphic/ video monitoring techniques, have provided the basis for improved diagnosis and classification of seizures in the newborn. These studies have demonstrated that not all clinical phenomena currently considered to be seizures require electrocortical epileptiform activity for their initiation or elaboration. In addition, the specific clinical character of the phenomena considered to be seizures, the clinical state of the infant, and the character of the EEG indicate the probable pathophysiological mechanisms involved and suggest probable etiologies, prognosis, and therapy. Similarities between animal models that demonstrate reflex physiology and neonates with motor automatisms and tonic posturing suggest that these clinical behaviors may not be epileptic in origin but, rather, primitive movements of progression and posture mediated by brainstem mechanisms. Although not all clinical behaviors currently considered to be neonatal seizures may have similar pathophysiological mechanisms, they are clinically significant because they all indicate brain dysfunction.     

Valproate Monotherapy in the Management of Generalized and Partial Seizures

Summary: For decades, therapeutic tradition has promoted the concept of polypharmacy in the management of epilepsy. In recent years, however, studies have shown that, for most patients, monotherapy can provide comparable or better seizure control than administration of multiple anticonvulsants, while diminishing the potential for adverse reactions, drug interactions, and poor compliance. Valproate is an important monotherapeutic agent that is highly effective in the control of idiopathic primary and secondarily generalized epilepsies, and partial seizures that do not generalize. Comparative studies have found that valproate is at least as effective as phenytoin and carbamazepine in the treatment of generalized and partial seizures. Given the similar efficacy, other factors such as pharmacokinetics and side effects may therefore determine anticonvulsant selection for monotherapy.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Un nouveau cadre conceptuel de travail pour la psychiatrie

In an attempt to place psychiatric thinking and the training of future psychiatrists more centrally into the context of modern biology, the author outlines the beginnings of a new intellectual framework for psychiatry that derives from current biological thinking about the relationship of mind to brain. The purpose of this framework is twofold. First, it is designed to emphasize that the professional requirements for future psychiatrists will demand a greater knowledge of the structure and functioning of the brain than is currently available in most training programs. Second, it is designed to illustrate that the unique domain which psychiatry occupies within academic medicine, the analysis of the interaction between social and biological determinants of behavior, can best be studied by also having a full understanding of the biological components of behavior.     

Special Pharmacokinetic Considerations in Children

Summary: Pediatric patients have greater degrees of pharmacokinetic variability and unpredictability than adults. This variability results from the effects of pharmacogenetics, age and growth, prior and current comedication, and disease. Newborns with seizures have the least predictable dosage requirements, and their needs change as drug-eliminating mechanisms mature in the neonatal period. Infants have the highest relative capacities to eliminate antiepileptics of any age group and require the largest relative doses. In addition to age-related trends, children demonstrate the same drug-specific, pharmacokinetic phenomena that adults do, including nonlinear phenytoin elimination, nonlinear valproate binding, and autoinduction of carbamazepine. Intercurrent illness and drug interactions further modify the age-related pharmacokinetic patterns in children and make dosage requirements even more unpredictable. Recent studies have shown that febrile illness can affect drug elimination, sometimes decreasing drug levels by 50% or more. Intermittent treatment with benzodiazepines administered either orally or rectally can be an important adjunct and help minimize this type of problem for children with marginally controlled epilepsy. Intermittent benzodiazepines are also helpful for children who have febrile seizures and who need only occasional antiepileptic protection.