Intrapericardial control of the inferior vena cava from the abdominal cavity

Vascular isolation of the liver is a useful technique in major hepatic surgery that involves hepatic veins and the inferior vena cava. In some patients, exposure of the suprahepatic inferior vena cava is suboptimal from the abdominal cavity, and extension into the chest is required. This report details technical considerations of the control of the inferior vena cava within the pericardium from the abdominal cavity, through a vertical incision in the diaphragm, and without the need for a thoracic incision. We review the clinical situations when a transdiaphragmatic, intrapericardial access of the inferior vena cava should be considered.     

Aneurysmal dilatation of the inferior vena cava

Aim: Inferior vena cava aneurysms (IVCA) are rare, unlike aortic aneurysms. The diagnosis and treatment is challenging. This study defines clinical and echocardiographic findings in a prospective cohort of sixteen patients with fusiform IVCA. Methods and Results: All patients referred to the Mayo Clinic between January 2006 and July 2009 for a clinically indicated echocardiogram (36,128 patients) were screened for a dilated IVC. Sixteen cases of fusiform IVCA were identified. Eleven cases (68.8%) were female. Mean age at presentation was 76 years (range 51–89). Eleven (68.8%) had structural heart disease: with right ventricular (RV) dysfunction in 45.5% (n = 5), moderate or greater tricuspid regurgitation (TR) was seen in 36.4% (n = 4) and RV enlargement was seen in 18.2% (n = 2). The most common clinical indication for echocardiography was dyspnea (25%; n = 4) and heart failure (18.8%; n = 3). The mean IVCA diameter was 4.1 cm (range 3.8–5 cm) and the mean length of the aneurysms was 6.2 cm (range 3.5–8.7 cm), with mean right ventricular systolic pressure of 55 mmHg (range 31–105 mmHg). Five (31.3%) had at least a moderate reduction in right ventricular ejection fraction and five (31.3%) had significant TR. Among these five patients with significant TR, severe TR was present in 80%; (n = 4) and moderate to severe TR was present in 20%; (n = 1). Conclusions: IVC aneurysms are more common in the elderly, and is associated with an increase in right sided heart pressures, significant TR, and RV dysfunction. (Echocardiography 2011;28:833‐842)     

置入下腔静脉滤器联合溶栓治疗下肢深静脉血栓形成临床观察

目的:观察置入下腔静脉滤器联合介入性溶栓治疗在下肢深静脉血栓形成中的疗效。方法: 2007年10月~2011年10月我科收治84例下肢深静脉血栓形成患者,其中51例采用下腔静脉滤器联合介入性溶栓,同时常规抗凝治疗为观察组;33例常规抗凝、溶栓治疗为对照组,观察临床变化并进行3～46个月随访。结果: 观察组在出院时治疗有效率显著高于对照组(98% vs. 58%,P<0．01),随访3个月治疗有效率也高于对照组(98% vs. 79%,P<0.01);观察组出血并发症较对照组显著减少（4% vs. 27%,P<0.05）,静脉血栓综合征的发生率低于对照组（2% vs. 15%,P<0.05）;观察组在肺动脉栓塞发生率上有显著降低（观察组0%,对照组12%,P<0.01）。结论: 置入下腔静脉滤器联合介入性溶栓治疗下肢深静脉血栓效果优于传统溶栓治疗,能有效预防或减少肺栓塞的发生,但应严格掌握下腔静脉滤器的置入指征。     

Symptomatic inferior vena cava perforation by a retrievable filter: Report of two cases and a literature review

Inferior vena cava filters have been used frequently for decades to prevent pulmonary embolism in medical, surgical and trauma patients. With the advent of temporary or retrievable filters, the use of these filters has increased substantially. However, the enhanced design and attributes that make these devices attractive for short-term benefit and retrieval are not without risk. Two cases of symptomatic inferior vena cava wall penetration are reported - one of which required surgical intervention.     

Liver cirrhosis in hepatic vena cava syndrome (or membranous obstruction of inferior vena cava)

Hepatic vena cava syndrome (HVCS) also known as membranous obstruction of inferior vena cava reported mainly from Asia and Africa is an important cause of hepatic venous outflow obstruction (HVOO) that is complicated by high incidence of liver cirrhosis (LC) and moderate to high incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In the past the disease was considered congenital and was included under Budd-Chiari syndrome (BCS). HVCS is a chronic disease common in developing countries, the onset of which is related to poor hygienic living condition. The initial lesion in the disease is a bacterial infection induced localized thrombophlebitis in hepatic portion of inferior vena cava at the site where hepatic veins open which on resolution transforms into stenosis, membrane or thick obstruction, and is followed by development of cavo-caval collateral anastomosis. The disease is characterized by long asymptomatic period and recurrent acute exacerbations (AE) precipitated by clinical or subclinical bacterial infection. AE is managed with prolonged oral antibiotic. Development of LC and HCC in HVCS is related to the severity and frequency of AEs and not to the duration of the disease or the type or severity of the caval obstruction. HVOO that develops during severe acute stage or AE is a pre-cirrhotic condition. Primary BCS on the other hand is a rare disease related to prothrombotic disorders reported mainly among Caucasians that clinically manifest as acute, subacute disease or as fulminant hepatic failure; and is managed with life-long anticoagulation, porto-systemic shunt/endovascular angioplasty and stent or liver transplantation. As epidemiology, etiology and natural history of HVCS are different from classical BCS, it is here, recognized as a separate disease entity, a third primary cause of HVOO after sinusoidal obstruction syndrome and BCS. Understanding of the natural history has made early diagnosis of HVCS possible. This paper describes epidemiology, natural history and diagnosis of HVCS and discusses the pathogenesis of LC in the disease and mentions distinctive clinical features of HVCS related LC.     

The inferior vena cava: an exceptional source of atrial fibrillation

Mapping in a patient undergoing radiofrequency ablation for drug-refractory paroxysmal atrial fibrillation in the setting of repetitive, monomorphic atrial ectopic beats with negative p waves in the inferior leads revealed an arrhythmogenic focus located in the posteromedial inferior vena cava (IVC) 1 cm below the right atrium to IVC junction. The focus was mapped using a Lasso catheter with successful irrigated-tip catheter ablation at the site of earliest activity. This case demonstrates that, in rare cases, arrhythmogenic muscular sleeves can be found in the IVC and that the IVC can be electrically disconnected from the right atrium using radiofrequency energy.     

Spontaneous migration of an inferior vena cava filter resulting in cardiac tamponade and percutaneous filter retrieval.

Thromboembolic disease accounts for thousands of hospitalizations every year in the US. Its primary management consists of anticoagulation. However, in certain instances this may be contraindicated or not sufficient. Mechanic occlusion of the inferior vena cava (IVC) becomes then a viable alternative. In this case a 35-year-old man presented with a saddle pulmonary embolus but was unable to be anticoagulated due to intestinal bleed. A removable IVC filter was then placed. The filter spontaneously migrated into the right atrium causing severe tricuspid regurgitation, perforation of the atrial wall, and cardiac tamponade. The device was successfully retrieved percutaneously and the patient discharged from the hospital in stable condition. This case illustrates the potentially lethal complications associated with the use of IVC filters, as well as the possibility to percutaneously recover them from within the right atrium.     

Membranous obstruction of the inferior vena cava (obliterative hepatocavopathy, Okuda)

Confusion prevails throughout the world regarding the definition and classification of the Budd-Chiari syndrome. The original patients (Budd and Chiari) described had hepatic vein thrombosis, but this syndrome now encompasses various hepatic venous outflow blocks, of which membranous obstruction of the inferior vena cava (IVC) is the most common. This author has been suggesting that the classical Budd-Chiari syndrome or hepatic vein thrombosis and membranous obstruction of IVC or primary thrombosis of IVC at its hepatic portion are epidemiologically, pathologically and clinically different, and that they should be treated as two clinical entities that are not to be mixed. The two diseases have a different onset, different clinical manifestations and a different natural history. Whereas hepatic vein thrombosis is a severe disease with an acute onset, IVC thrombosis presents mildly at onset, but it recurs and eventually turns into a fibrous occlusion of IVC of varying thickness or stenosis of a various degree. The fibrous IVC occlusion is found as a mysterious thin membrane, but is more often much thicker than a membrane, and therefore 'membrane' is a misnomer. Although the genesis is not established, formation of a thin membrane may be an outcome of recurrent thrombosis. The past congenital vascular malformation theory no longer holds, because the disease occurs mostly in adulthood, and transformation of thrombosis into a membrane has now been well documented pathologically as well as clinically. This author suggests that a term 'obliterative hepatocavopathy' replace membranous obstruction of IVC, the term 'Budd-Chiari syndrome' be abandoned, and that primary hepatic venous outflow block be divided into primary hepatic vein thrombosis and primary IVC thrombosis (obliterative hepatocavopathy).     

Complete membranous obstruction of the inferior vena cava: clinical characteristics of Chinese patients

Abstract. Objectives. To analyse the clinical presentations of membranous-type Budd-Chiari syndrome and the long-term outcome of balloon angioplasty. Design. A case-control study. Patients who received abdominal sonography and were suspected of having hepatic venous outflow obstruction were advised to receive cardiac catheterization and angiography. Setting. Patients were collected from Chung Hisao Hospital and Chang Gung Medical Centre. Angioplasty was done at Chang Gung Medical Centre. Subjects. Seventeen patients who had the symptoms and signs of portal hypertension were suspected of having hepatic venous outflow obstruction after abdominal sonography and a radionuclide liver scan and eight of them were confirmed as having membranous-type obstruction. Interventions. Simultaneous catherization and contrast angiography was performed via the right brachial and femoral veins. Angioplasty was performed afterwards. Main outcome measures. The remission of clinical symptoms and signs and a decrease of the pressure gradient between the right atrium and inferior vena cava were used as indicators of successful intervention. Results. All patients had remarkable remission of symptoms and signs. The average pressure gradient between right atrium and inferior vena cava dropped from 16.5 ± 1.6 to 6.5 ± 1 mmHg (mean ± su). Conclusion. The clinical presentations of membranous-type Budd-Chiari syndrome are somewhat different from hepatic vein occlusion. Balloon angioplasty may be a modality for curing this disease. A larger patient population is necessary to confirm this study.     

Close relation between the inferior vena cava ligament and the caudate lobe in the human liver

Background/Purpose

This study was conducted to clarify the real relation between the inferior vena cava (IVC) ligament and the caudate lobe in the human liver and also to elucidate their surgical importance in liver surgery.

Methods

Specimens obtained from 20 adult cadaveric livers were submitted for the study. Histological structures of the IVC ligament and its relationship to the caudate lobe and the IVC were microscopically investigated.

Results

The IVC ligament was a broad membranous connective tissue bridging the left and right side edges of the caval groove in which the IVC was embedded. At both edges of the caval groove, the IVC ligament was continuously transformed from the Glisson's capsules of the caudate and right lobes. The component of the portal triad, which originated from that of caudate lobe, and lymphatics were distributed in the IVC ligament without exception and ectopic hepatocytes existed in it in 4 of the 20 cases.

Conclusions

A close relation between the IVC ligament and the caudate lobe was confirmed. The findings suggested that the IVC ligament is a kind of degenerated hepatic tissue. When dissecting it, surgeons should manipulate it carefully to prevent unexpected bleeding and bile leakage.

     

Balloon dilatation of inferior vena cava obstruction in budd-chiari syndrome

Budd-Chiari syndrome is a well described entity which can easily be confused with congestive hepatomegaly. The syndrome usually is caused by thrombosis of the hepatic veins, however it also can be caused by congenital fibrous webs that occlude hepatic vessels in the inferior vena cava. It leads to an enlarged liver with ascites, peripheral edema, and portal hypertension.     

Transvenous parasympathetic nerve stimulation in the inferior vena cava and atrioventricular conduction

INTRODUCTION: In previous reports, we demonstrated a technique for parasympathetic nerve stimulation (PNS) within the superior vena cava, pulmonary artery, and coronary sinus to control rapid ventricular rates during atrial fibrillation (AF). In this report, we describe another vascular site, the inferior vena cava (IVC), at which negative dromotropic effects during AF could consistently be obtained. Moreover, stimulation at this site also induced dual AV nodal electrophysiology. METHODS AND RESULTS: PNS was performed in ten dogs using rectangular stimuli (0.1 msec/20 Hz) delivered through a catheter with an expandable electrode basket at its tip. Within 3 minutes and without using fluoroscopy, the catheter was positioned at an effective PNS site in the IVC at the junction of the right atrium. AF was induced and maintained by rapid atrial pacing. During stepwise increase of the PNS voltage from 2 to 34 V, a graded response of ventricular rate slowing during AF was observed (266 +/- 79 msec without PNS vs 1,539 +/- 2,460 msec with PNS at 34 V; P = 0.005 by analysis of variance), which was abolished by atropine and blunted by hexamethonium. In three animals, PNS was performed during sinus rhythm. Dual AV nodal electrophysiology was present in 1 of 3 dogs in control, whereas with PNS, dual AV nodal electrophysiology was observed in all three dogs. PNS did not significantly change sinus rate or arterial blood pressure during ventricular pacing. CONCLUSION: Stable and consistent transvenous electrical stimulation of parasympathetic nerves innervating the AV node can be achieved in the IVC, a transvenous site that is rapidly and readily accessible. The proposed catheter approach for PNS can be used to control ventricular rate during AF in this animal model.     

肺栓塞合并深静脉血栓患者下腔静脉滤器的应用

目的探讨无抗凝禁忌证的肺栓塞合并深静脉血栓患者的下腔静脉滤器（inferior vena cava filter,IVCF）应用的效果。方法60例人选患者分两组,抗凝组和抗凝＋IVCF组,进行1年随访观察。结果两组患者深静脉血栓再发生率、并发症发生率、病死率比较,差异无统计学意义（P〉0．05）,但在肺栓塞再发生率方面,抗凝组明显高于抗凝＋IVCF组,差异有统计学差异[20％（6／30）vs．0,P〈0．05]。结论IVCF可以有效应用于无抗凝禁忌证的肺栓塞合并深静脉血栓患者。     

Membranous obstruction of the inferior vena cava and its causal relation to hepatocellular carcinoma.

Although rare in most countries, membranous obstruction of the inferior vena cava (MOIVC) occurs more frequently in Nepal, South Africa, Japan, India, China, and Korea. The occlusive lesion always occurs at approximately the level of the diaphragm. It commonly takes the form of a membrane, but may be a fibrotic occlusion of variable length. Controversy exists as to whether MOIVC is a developmental abnormality or a result of organization of a thrombus in the hepatic portion of the inferior vena cava. The outstanding physical sign associated with MOIVC are large truncal collateral vessels with a cephalad flow. A dilated vena azygous is seen on chest radiography. Definitive diagnosis is made by contrast inferior vena cavography. The long-standing obstruction to hepatic venous flow causes severe centrolobular fibrosis and predisposes to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Percutaneous balloon angioplasty, transatrial membranotomy, or more complex vena caval and portal decompression surgery should be performed to prevent these complications. HCC occurs in more than 40% of South African Black and Japanese patients with MOIVC, but less often in other populations. It is thought to result from the tumour-promoting effect of continuous hepatocyte necrosis, although the associated environmental risk factors have not been identified.     

Asymptomatic membranous obstruction of the inferior vena cava forming intrahepatic collateral pathways

Intrahepatic and/or extrahepatic collateral pathways result from the membranous obstruction of the inferior vena cava. These collaterals are usually insufficient to prevent Budd-Chiari syndrome. We reprot an unusual case of asymptomatic membranous obstruction of the inferior vena cava in which marked intrahepatic collateral pathways were formed. Although the inferior vena cava terminated above the orifice of the right hepatic vein, the middle and left hepatic veins were patent above the membrane, without narrowing. Blood from the inferior vena cava drained into the right atrium via the intrahepatic collaterals between the right and middle hepatic veins without resistance.