NK细胞对不同人肝癌细胞株的杀伤作用

目的: 观察自然杀伤(NK)细胞对不同肝癌细胞株的体内外抑瘤作用,并检测肝癌细胞MHC-I类链相关蛋白(MIC蛋白)的表达。方法: 抽取志愿者外周血50 mL,分离单个核细胞,置入NK细胞试剂盒行孵化及逐级扩增。计算NK细胞对人白血病细胞株K562及人肝癌细胞株BEL7402、HepG2、SMMC7721的杀伤率。接种建立人肝癌细胞株裸鼠移植瘤,进行NK细胞瘤内及瘤周注射;计算各组裸鼠移植瘤的体积,绘制各组肿瘤生长曲线;处死裸鼠,称瘤重,计算NK细胞对各组肿瘤抑制率。检测人肝癌细胞表面 MIC蛋白表达。结果: NK细胞对K562细胞杀伤最强,BEL-7402次之,SMMC-7721细胞株杀伤敏感性最低。裸鼠抑瘤实验结果显示NK细胞对于BEL-7402细胞株的抑瘤效果最好,而对于SMMC-7721细胞株的抑瘤效果较差。BEL-7402及HepG2细胞株表面表达MIC,而SMMC-7721则很少表达。结论: NK细胞对于不同人肝癌细胞株体内外抑瘤作用不同,其差异可能和不同肝癌细胞株MIC的表达有关。     

Fbxw7在肝癌中的表达及与肝癌细胞增殖相关性研究

目的:探讨Fbxw7在肝癌中的表达及其与肝癌细胞增殖能力的相关性.方法:收集40例肝细胞癌组织及对应的癌旁组织,运用RT-PCR、免疫组化技术检测Fbxw7在肝癌及对应癌旁组织中的表达情况;real time RT-PCR技术检测正常肝细胞株LO2、肝癌细胞株Hep3B和SMMC-7721中Fbxw7mRNA的表达水平;平板克隆形成实验与裸鼠皮下成瘤实验检测不同Fbxw7 mRNA表达水平的细胞株体内外增殖能力.结果:Fbxw7 mRNA及蛋白在肝癌组织中表达水平显著低于对应癌旁组织(P＜0.05);Fbxw7蛋白低表达与高Edmonson分级和高TNM分期具有显著的相关性(P＜0.05);正常肝细胞株LO2中Fbxw7 mRNA的表达水平显著高于肝癌细胞株Hep3B和SMMC-7721 (P＜0.05);Fbxw7表达较低的细胞株形成的克隆数较多,且裸鼠皮下成瘤体积较大,结果均具有统计学差异(P＜0.05).结论:Fbxw7低表达与肝癌的恶性临床病理特征相关,并与肝癌细胞增殖能力相关.     

GRAMD4在肝细胞癌中的表达及临床意义

目的 检测GRAMD4在肝细胞癌中的表达情况,分析其与肝癌临床病理特征之间的相关性.方法 收集40例肝细胞癌及对应癌旁组织,运用RT-PCR、免疫组化技术检测GRAMD4在肝癌及对应癌旁组织中的表达情况,统计学分析GRAMD4mRNA表达与肝癌临床病理特征之间的相关性;应用RT-PCR技术检测人正常肝细胞LO2和肝癌细胞Hep3B、HepG2、SMMC-7721中GRAMD4 mRNA的表达.结果 GRAND4 mRNA及蛋白在肝癌组织中的表达显著高于对应的癌旁组织(P＜0.05);GRAMD4 mRNA的高表达与肿瘤体积增大、高Edmonson分级和高TNM分期呈明显正相关(P＜0.05);肝癌细胞株Hep3B、HepG2和SMMC-7721中GRAMD4 mRNA的表达较正常肝细胞LO2显著增加(P＜0.05).结论 肝癌细胞系及肝癌组织中GRAMD4表达上调,且GRAMD4的表达上调与肝癌的恶性病理特征相关.     

shRNA下调Paxillin表达对SMMC-7721肝癌细胞增殖、侵袭的影响

目的采用RNA干扰技术转染shRNA下调SMMC-7721肝癌细胞中Paxillin的表达,探讨Paxillin下调对SMMC-7721细胞迁移、侵袭力的影响。方法采用Paxillin shRNA转染肝癌细胞株SMMC-7721,分别设未处理SMMC-7721肝癌细胞组(未处理组)、shRNA Paxillin阴性组(对照组)和shRNA Paxillin组(实验组)。以GAPDH为内参,采用qRT-PCR、Western blot、ELISA法分别检测各组SMMC-7721细胞中Paxillin与FAK的表达;筛选出稳定转染Paxillin shRNA的肝癌细胞株,采用MTT、Transwell侵袭小室法分别检测各组细胞的增殖情况和侵袭力差异。结果 qRT-PCR和ELISA结果均显示Paxillin表达明显下调(P0.05),FAK表达各组间差异无显著性(P0.05);Western blot法检测结果显示实验组Paxillin的相对表达量明显低于未处理组和对照组;成功构建Paxillin稳定表达的SMMC-7721肝癌细胞株;MTT细胞增殖与Transwell细胞侵袭力检测显示Paxillin下调肝癌细胞的增殖、侵袭能力明显低于未处理组和对照组(P0.05)。结论 shRNA干扰技术可以下调Paxillin的表达;Paxillin表达下调抑制SMMC-7721肝癌细胞的增殖、侵袭能力;Paxillin有望成为肝癌复发、转移预测和基因治疗的新靶点。     

血清AFP阴性与阳性肝细胞癌免疫组化的比较性研究

甲胎蛋白（alpha—fetoprotein,AFP）是目前临床诊断原发性肝细胞性肝癌的重要指标,通过检验血清AFP的肝癌诊断率约为70％,但30％的肝癌AFP阴性。Kawai等利用cDNA芯片技术对产生AFP肝癌细胞株的基因表达谱进行研究,结果表明产生AFP的肝癌细胞株具有许多种类的特异基因表达谱。为了解AFP阴性肝细胞癌的蛋白表达特征,本实验应用免疫组化和细胞图像分析技术检测血清AFP阴性与阳性肝细胞癌组织中AFP和Tn蛋白表达情况,探讨AFP和Tn蛋白在肝癌组织中是否具有差异性分布及其意义。     

表达丙型肝炎病毒核心蛋白的人肝癌稳定转染细胞株的建立与鉴定

目的建立能表达丙型肝炎病毒核心蛋白(HCV core)的人肝癌细胞SMMC-7721的稳定转染细胞株。方法构建含目的基因HCV core的重组质粒,转染HEK293T细胞,包装获得含ZsGreen和HCV core基因的慢病毒后,感染SMMC-7721人肝癌细胞,采用实时荧光定量PCR检测HCV core mRNA表达,采用免疫荧光细胞化学染色和Western blot法检测HCV core蛋白表达,筛选稳定表达HCV core的细胞株。结果质粒酶切和序列测定证实重组载体构建正确;慢病毒包装48 h后可见清晰ZsGreen表达,感染SMMC-7721细胞后筛选获得稳定转染的细胞株,实时荧光定量PCR检测到HCV core mRNA,免疫荧光细胞化学染色和Western blot法均检测出HCV core蛋白表达。结论成功构建了表达HCV core蛋白的SMMC-7721人肝癌细胞的稳定转染细胞株。     

NS-398抑制肝癌SMMC-7721细胞及组织MVD值、VEGF、MMP-9的表达

目的探讨NS-398对肝细胞癌MVD值、VEGF、MMP-9表达的影响。方法采用RT-PCR和流式细胞术检测肝癌SMMC-7721细胞VEGF、MMP-9表达。采用免疫组化法检测裸鼠移植瘤MVD,ELISA法测定血清中PGE2水平。结果在体外,NS-398可以呈剂量和时间依赖性显著抑制SMMC-7721细胞的VEGF、MMP-9 mRNA和蛋白表达;在体内,可显著降低裸鼠移植瘤MVD、VEGF、MMP-9基因和蛋白表达(P<0.001),并能降低裸鼠血清中PGE2水平(P<0.001)。结论COX-2与肝细胞癌血管生成密切相关,NS-398可通过下调VEGF和MMP-9的表达而抑制肝细胞癌血管生成。     

桔皮素对人肝癌细胞株SMMC-7721抑制作用的初步研究

目的：探讨桔皮素对人肝癌细胞株SMMC-7721的抑制作用。方法：采用四唑盐（MTT）比色法观察不同浓度桔皮素对人肝癌细胞株SMMC-7721细胞增殖的影响，计算半数抑制浓度IC50；绘制细胞株SMMC-7721的生长曲线观察桔皮素对其增殖的影响。结果：MTT结果显示不同浓度的桔皮素对SMMC-7721的生长均有一定的抑制作用，同一时间，各浓度组与对照组相比均有统计学差异（P〈0．05）；桔皮素浓度为0．24—30μg·mL。时，对SMMC-7721细胞在药物处理72小时后抑制率为3．85％～93．59％，且72小时的IG50为14．69—21．11μg·mL^-1。生长曲线结果提示，桔皮素对SMMC-7721细胞的抑制作用呈明显时效和量效关系。结论：桔皮素能抑制人肝癌细胞株SMMC-7721的增殖。     

miR-130b在肝细胞癌中的表达及临床病理意义

目的探讨miR-130b在人肝细胞癌(HCC)中的表达、与临床病理特征的关系及可能机制。方法用实时定量PCR(qRT-PCR)检测miR-130b在86例HCC及癌旁组织、不同肝癌细胞系的表达;免疫组织化学染色检测miR-130b不同表达水平的HCC组织中上皮钙黏素(E-cadherin)、波形蛋白(vimentin)及过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体γ(PPARγ)的表达情况;qRT-PCR检测miR-130b在LO2人正常永生化肝细胞及Hep G2、Hep3B、SMMC-7721、Hu7肝癌细胞系的表达水平;应用人工合成的miR-130b抑制物转染SMMC-7721细胞,TranswellTM实验检测SMMC-7721细胞侵袭能力变化;应用人工合成的miR-130b抑制物及PPARγ小干扰RNA(siRNA)转染SMMC-7721人肝癌细胞,qRT-PCR检测癌细胞中miR-130b、PPARγ、E-cadherin、vimentin的mRNA水平,Western blot法检测癌细胞中PPARγ、E-cadherin、vimentin的蛋白水平。结果 miR-130b在HCC组织中表达水平显著高于对应癌旁组织;肝癌组织中miR-130b异常表达与门静脉侵犯、原发肿瘤分级、肿瘤TNM分期显著相关;miR-130b在不同肝癌细胞系中表达均高于LO2细胞;miR-130b高表达组PPARγ及E-cadherin蛋白水平显著低于miR-130低表达组,而vimentin水平显著高于miR-130b低表达组,相关性分析结果显示肝癌组织中miR-130b与PPARγ蛋白、E-cadherin蛋白水平呈显著负相关,与vimentin蛋白水平呈显著正相关;抑制miR-130b水平,可上调PPARγ蛋白的水平,E-cadherin蛋白的表达显著增加,而vimentin蛋白表达显著降低,SMMC-7721细胞的侵袭能力降低。PPARγsiRNA可部分逆转miR-130b抑制物对SMMC-7721细胞的作用。结论 miR-130b在HCC组织中表达上调并与HCC恶性临床病理特征有关,miR-130b可能通过抑制PPARγ表达及诱导上皮间质转化促进肝癌细胞侵袭。     

人工高表达LAIR-1对人肝癌细胞系SMMC-7721细胞增殖、凋亡和侵袭的影响

研究人白细胞相关免疫球蛋白样受体1(leukocyte-associated immunoglobulin-like receptor 1,LAIR-1)对人肝癌细胞系SMMC-7721细胞增殖、凋亡和侵袭的影响,探讨LAIR-1的表达在肝癌中的作用。以LAIR-1慢病毒表达载体(LV-LAIR-1)转染SMMC-7721细胞,建立稳定高表达LAIR-1的细胞株LAIR-1+SMMC-7721。采用流式细胞术(flow cytometry,FCM)、Western blotting、RT-PCR和激光扫描共聚焦显微技术(laser scanning confocal microscopy,LSCM)等方法鉴定LAIR-1分子在SMMC-7721细胞的表达水平;采用CCK-8试剂盒、FITC Annexin V凋亡试剂盒和Transwell侵袭实验分别检测LAIR-1对SMMC-7721细胞增殖、凋亡和侵袭的影响。检测结果显示,经LV-LAIR-1转染的SMMC-7721细胞高水平表达LAIR-1分子;功能实验结果显示,与实验组细胞相比,LAIR-1的表达对细胞增殖无明显影响(P>0.05),但是能够明显促进细胞凋亡(P<0.05),并能够显著抑制细胞的侵袭能力(P<0.05)。上述研究结果提示,LAIR-1分子的表达可能是影响肝癌细胞生物学特性的一个重要因素。     

HLA-E在肝癌细胞系中的表达

目的: 研究人类白细胞抗原E(HLA-E)在肝癌细胞系中的表达情况。方法: 通过real-time PCR和Western blotting技术研究5种肝癌细胞系和胎肝细胞系中HLA-E mRNA 和蛋白的表达情况,进行相对定量分析。结果: Real-time PCR 检测显示,HepG2 细胞、Bel7402 细胞、 PLC 细胞、MHCC97细胞和Hep3B2.1-7 细胞这5种肝癌细胞系与L02胎肝细胞系的HLA-E mRNA 水平比较,除Hep3B2.1-7细胞表达几乎接近缺失(P<0.01)外,其余无显著差异(P>0.05)。HepG2细胞、Bel7402 细胞、 PLC 细胞、MHCC97 细胞和Hep3B2.1-7 细胞与L02 细胞的HLA-E 蛋白水平比较,差异显著(P<0.01),其中Hep3B2.1-7细胞表达缺失。结论: 肝癌细胞系的HLA-E mRNA和蛋白表达不同步,可能存在转录后调控。     

LGR5在肝癌细胞及肝癌组织中的表达及意义

目的 探讨LGR5在4个肝癌细胞系、癌旁组织及肝癌组织中的表达,及在肝癌中的作用.方法 免疫印迹法及实时定量RT-PCR检测正常细胞和4种肝癌细胞中LGR5的表达;采用免疫组织化学检测36例肝癌及癌旁组织中LGR5及β-catenin的表达;利用免疫细胞化学检测HepG2细胞中LGR5的表达.结果 免疫印迹法及实时定量...     

Carboxypeptidase A4 promotes proliferation and stem cell characteristics of hepatocellular carcinoma

Carboxypeptidase A4 (CPA4), a member of the metallo‐carboxypeptidase family, is overexpressed in liver cancer and is associated with cancer progression. The role of CPA4 in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains unclear. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the relevance of CPA4 to the proliferation and expression of stem cell characteristics of hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Western blot analysis showed high CPA4 expression in the liver cancer cell line Bel7402 and low expression in HepG2 cells. Knock‐down of CPA4 decreased cancer cell proliferation as detected by MTT and clone formation assays. The serum‐free culture system revealed that downregulated CPA4 suppressed the sphere formation capacities of tumour cells. However, upregulated CPA4 increased the proliferation and sphere formation capacity. In addition, the protein expression of CD133, ALDH1 and CD44 also increased in cells with upregulated CPA4. In vivo, the overexpression of CPA4 in tumour cells that were subcutaneously injected into nude mice markedly increased the growth of the tumours. These data suggest that CPA4 expression leads to poor prognoses by regulating tumour proliferation and the expression of stem cell characteristics and may therefore serve as a potential therapeutic target of HCC.     

The glypican 3 oncofetal protein is a promising diagnostic marker for hepatocellular carcinoma.

Expression profiling of hepatocellular carcinoma has demonstrated that glypican 3 (GPC3), a heparan sulfate proteoglycan anchored to the membrane, is expressed at a markedly elevated level in hepatocellular carcinoma. In this paper, two monoclonal antibodies against GPC3, GPC3-C02 and A1836A, were confirmed to specifically recognize GPC3 molecule in cells from hepatocellular carcinoma and hepatoblastoma cell lines by immunoblotting, and both were confirmed to recognize different epitopes of the GPC3 molecule by epitope mapping. Then, we evaluated the feasibility of GPC3-immunohistochemistry in the pathological diagnosis of benign and malignant hepatocellular lesions by applying these monoclonal antibodies to formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded specimens. The immunoreactivity turned out to be identical in the two monoclonal antibodies and was thus confirmed to represent the actual expression of the GPC3 molecule. The expression was observed in the fetal liver, but not in normal adult liver, liver cirrhosis or hepatitis except for a tiny focus of a regenerative nodule of fulminant hepatitis. Diffusely positive staining of GPC3 was observed in malignant hepatocytes in hepatoblastomas and in hepatocellular carcinomas (47/56, 84%). GPC3 expression was independent of the differentiation and size of the hepatocellular carcinoma. On the other hand, there was only weak and focal staining in low-grade (2/8) and high-grade dysplastic nodules (6/8). GPC3 immunoreactivity was detected in only one of 23 metastatic lesions of colorectal carcinoma, and its expression was entirely absent in the liver cell adenoma (0/7), carcinoid tumor (0/1), and cholangiocellular carcinoma (0/16). When compared with immunohistochemistry of hepatocyte antigen and alpha-fetoprotein, GPC3-immunohistochemistry was significantly much more specific and sensitive for hepatocellular carcinomas. Thus, GPC3 was confirmed to be one of the oncofetal proteins now attracting attention for their promise both as markers of hepatocellular carcinoma in routine histological examination and as targets in monoclonal antibody-based hepatocellular carcinoma therapy.     

Claudins and tricellulin in fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinoma

Fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinoma is a subtype of hepatocellular carcinoma occurring in non-cirrhotic liver at a younger age. The tumor expresses both hepatocellular and cholangiocellular markers. Previously, our group described overexpression of tight junction protein claudin 4 in cholangiocellular carcinoma in contrast to hepatocellular carcinoma. In the present study, tight junction protein expressions were studied to possibly clarify bipotential lineage of fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinoma. Eleven fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinomas were compared with seven “conventional” hepatocellular carcinomas, seven cholangiocellular carcinomas, and five normal liver samples. By immunohistochemistry, all fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinomas were positive for HepPar1 and cytokeratins 7, 8, and 18, but negative for cytokeratin 19. Glypican-3 gave weak staining in two cases. Expression of claudin 1 was lower, while that of claudin 2 was higher in fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinomas than in other tumors. Claudins 3, 4, and 7 were not detectable in fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinomas as in the majority of “conventional” hepatocellular carcinomas, contrary to high expression observed in cholangiocellular carcinomas. Focal or diffuse claudin 5 expression was detected in nine of 11 fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinomas contrary to other tumors. Tricellulin was significantly downregulated in all tumors compared with normal liver. Our findings showed claudins to exhibit specific expression patterns in fibrolamellar hepatocellular carcinomas not observed in other primary liver tumors, with unique claudin 5 expression and pattern features similar to common hepatocellular carcinoma, but different from cholangiocellular carcinoma. This is the first report describing the loss of tricellulin expression in human hepatic tumors.     

Wnt/β-catenin信号因子在HepG2以及L02细胞中的表达

目的:比较Wnt/β-catenin信号分子在HepG2和L02细胞中的表达,探讨Wnt/β-catenin信号转导通路在肝癌发生中的作用机制,为肝癌的防治提供新的思路。方法:选取Wnt/β-catenin信号转导通路中上下游关键因子Wnt1、Wnt4、β-catenin、cyclin D1以及c-myc等,应用RT-PCR的方法观察他们在正常肝脏L02细胞和肝癌HepG2细胞中的转录水平。用免疫细胞化学染色方法和Western blot检测研究Wnt/β-catenin信号转导通路中最关键的成员β-catenin在上述2个细胞株中的定位和定量表达。结果:在正常的L02肝细胞中,用RT-PCR的方法未检测到Wnt1、Wnt4、cyclin D1以及c-myc的mRNA转录,只有β-catenin的基因被转录表达。同时用免疫细胞化学染色观察到β-catenin在L02细胞膜处存在表达。而在HepG2肿瘤细胞中,不仅检测到β-catenin的基因转录,同时也检测到Wnt1、cyclin D1以及c-myc的mRNA转录,只有Wnt4未转录。用免疫细胞化学的方法观察β-catenin在肿瘤细胞中的表达明显增强,表现为胞膜着色减弱而胞质甚至是胞核的阳性染色。采用Western blot检测也验证了β-catenin蛋白在肿瘤细胞中的表达水平明显高于正常细胞。结论:Wnt/β-catenin信号转导通路在人的肝癌细胞HepG2中存在异常活性,Wnt1可能是导致信号通路激活的始动因素之一。     

Gene expression profiles of microdissected pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

In a search for new molecular markers of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), we compared the gene expression profiles of seven pancreatic carcinomas and one carcinoma of the papilla Vateri with those of duct cells from three non-neoplastic pancreatic tissues. In addition, the human pancreatic duct cell line and five PDAC cell lines (AsPC-1, BxPC-3, Capan-1, Capan-2, HPAF) were examined. RNA was extracted from microdissected tissue or cultured cell lines and analysed using a custom-made Affymetrix Chip containing 3023 genes, of which 1000 were known to be tumour associated. Hierarchical clustering revealed 81 differentially expressed genes. Of all the genes, 26 were downregulated in PDAC and 14 were upregulated in PDAC. In PDAC cell lines versus normal pancreatic duct cells, 21 genes were downregulated and 20 were upregulated. Of these 81 differentially expressed genes, 15 represented human genes previously implicated in the tumourigenesis of PDAC. From the genes that were so far not known to be associated with PDAC tumorigenesis, we selected ADAM9 for further validation because of its distinct overexpression in tumour tissue. Using immunohistochemistry, the over-expressed gene, ADAM9, was present in 70% of the PDACs analysed. In conclusion, using microarray technology we were able to identify a set of genes whose aberrant expression was associated with PDAC and may be used to target the disease.     

CD133和CD34在肝细胞癌血管生成拟态形成中的表达及意义

背景：在恶性肿瘤中血管生成拟态的形成过程与肿瘤干细胞有密切联系。 目的：分析肝癌干细胞标志物CD133和CD34在肝细胞癌血管生成拟态形成中的表达及意义。 方法：建立肝癌细胞HCC97H、SMMC7721和正常肝细胞L02三维培养体系,结合激光捕获显微切割技术分离形成血管生成拟态的肝癌细胞,分别利用RT-PCR和Western blot技术检测CD133和CD34表达水平。 结果与结论：三维培养条件下,肝癌细胞HCC97H细胞形成血管生成拟态,肝癌细胞SMMC7721以及正常肝细胞L02未形成血管生成拟态。形成血管生成拟态的肝癌细胞HCC97H中CD133、CD34在mRNA及蛋白表达水平上均高于未形成血管生成拟态的肝癌细胞SMMC7721和正常肝细胞L02(P < 0.05)。表明高侵袭性肝癌细胞在三维培养下形成血管生成拟态,而低侵袭性肝癌细胞及正常肝细胞不能形成血管生成拟态;肝癌细胞形成血管生成拟态的过程中与表达肝癌干细胞有关。     

Vitamin K2-induced cell growth inhibition via autophagy formation in cholangiocellular carcinoma cell lines

Vitamin K2 (MK4) has antitumor effects on various types of cancer cell lines in vitro, and its efficacy has also been reported in clinical applications for patients with leukemia, myelodysplastic syndrome, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, details of the mechanism of the antitumor effects of MK4 remain unclear. In the present study, we examined the antitumor effects of MK4 on cholangiocellular carcinoma (CCC) cell lines and its mechanism of action using the HL-60 leukemia cell line that exerts MK4-induced cell growth inhibition via apoptosis induction and cell cycle arrest as a control. MK4 exerted dose-dependent antitumor effects on all three types of CCC cell lines. However, apoptosis occurred in a smaller percentage of cells and there was less cell cycle arrest compared with other cancer cell lines studied previously, which suggested slight MK4-induced cell growth inhibition via apoptosis induction and cell cycle arrest. On the contrary, histopathological fidings showed a large number of cells containing vacuoles in their cytoplasm, and electron microscopic findings showed a large number of cytoplasmic autophagosomes and autolysosomes. These findings suggested evidence of autophagy-related cell death. Fluorescence microscopy following acridine orange staining revealed an increase in the number of cytoplasmic acidic vesicular organelles characteristic of autophagy. Moreover, there were few cells forming autophagic vesicles in the control group, while the percentage of cells containing vacuoles in the MK4-treated group increased with the duration of culture. These results suggested that, unlike in leukemia, gastric cancer, HCC, and other cancer cells, the antitumor effects of MK4 on CCC cells are induced via autophagy formation.